r 



FIRST Y 



iiBi#iMM»«9««9ti«mfpMaiMM*t^^ 






SINCLAIR 



iMaA 



» 



PRI!VlAR¥VTEA«eHERS 







LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



LB \5i\ 

Slielf-.-S.C;!.-. 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



First Years at School. 



A MANUAL OF PRINCIPLES AND METHODS 
FOR PRIMARY TEACHERS, 



y 4 y/^ ^Y 

S/ B^ SINCLAIR, M.A. 

(Toronto University), 

vice-principal provincial normal school, ottawa ; formerly 

principal hamilton model training-school. 



mi 1311 

NEW YORK AND CHICAGO: 

E. L. KELLOGG & CO. 

1894. 







Authorized by the Ontario Education Department, 



Copyright, 1894, by 

E. L. KELLOGG & CO., 

NEW YORK. 



VALUABLE HELPS FOR PRIMARY TEACHERS. 

Perez's First Three Years of Childhood . $i 50 

Patridge's Quincy Methods Illustrated . . i 75 

Johnson's Education by Doing .... 50 

Hall's Contents of Children's Minds ... 25 

Roofer's Object Teaching ..... 25 

Kilburn's Manual of Elementary Teaching . i 50 

Augsburg's Easy Things to Draw ... 30 

Parker's Talks on Teaching . ; . . . i 25 

Hughes's Mistakes in Teaching .... 50 

Hughes's Securing Attention 50 

Kellogg's School Management .... 75 

Hoffman's Kindergarten Gifts .... 15 

*^* Large descriptive catalogue of all books and aids for teachers 
published sent free on application. 



CONTKNTS. 





PAGB 


Preface, .-.--. 


5 


Introduction— First Year at School, 


9 


Time-table, -.-.-- 


24 


Discipline and Tactics, - . - - 


25 


Language Lessons, . . . - - 


35 


Reading, ...... 


38 


(a) An Electric Method, . - . - 


42 


(6) Word Recognition, . . - 


44 


(c) Expressive Reading, .... 


71 


Number Work, ..... 


86 


(a) Perception, ..... 


92 


(6) Subtraction, ■ . . - . 


96 


(c) Addition, . . . . - 


100 


(d) Division, ..... 


101 


(e) Multiplication, - - - - . 


101 


(/) Partition, ..... 


102 


Study of Surroundings, . . - - 


109 


(a) Natural Science, - . - - 


112 


(6) Geography, ^ . . . . 


125 


Manual Training, - . . . - 


131 


(a) Form Study, Modeling, Drawing, etc., 


132 


(6) Color, - - r ' 


152 


(c) Writing, ..... 


154 


(d) Songs and Calisthenics, - 


157 


Moral Training, - - . . . 


161 


(a) Self, 


163 


(6) Others, -.--.. 


- - 164 


List of Supplies, - • . - . 


168 


List of Books for Primary Teachdrs, 


169 



New Books for Teachers. 

ILES* A CLASS IN GEOMETRY. 

By George Iles. *' It cannot fail to give to the teacher 
of this science new enthusiasm and new ideas, and to 
all teachers the pleasure arising from following our 
ideal method." Limp cloth. Price ^oc, post-paid, 

KELLOQQ*S ELEMENTARY PSYCHOLOGY. 

By Amos M. Kellogg, Editor of the School Journal, 
A concise outline for Normal students and the home 
study of pedagogy. It will aid those who have found 
other works obscure. Limp cloth. Price 2^c, post- 
paid, 

ROOFER'S APPERCEPTION, 

or, ''A Pot of Green Feathers," is a very simple book 
on psychology, strange as the title may seem. It dis- 
cusses perception and shows how it becomes percep- 
tion. Limp cloth. Price 2^c. post-paid, 

ROOPER'S OBJECT TEACHING 

makes plain this much-talked-of but little-understood 
subject both in its philosophical basis and its practice. 
Limp cloth. Price 2^c, post-paid, 

HALL'S CONTENTS OF CHILDREN'S MINDS 

on Entering School, by G. Stanley Hall, President of 
Clark University, gives the results of careful investiga- 
tions made by the writer and others to determine the 
amount and kind of knowledge possessed by the 
average child on entering school. Limp cloth. 
Price 2'yc, post-paid, 

^j% Large descriptive catalogue of five hundred books and aids for 
teachers in all branches of school work free. 

E. L. KELLOGG & CO., New York and Chicago. 



PREFACE. 



The reader will find nothing in the following pages 
which has not been submitted again and again to the 
tests of actual experience and careful criticism. For a 
number of years the author has devoted his entire time 
to the training of teachers and the supervision of primary 
grades. 

In the oversight of four hundred children, who are 
putting in their first year at public school, and the ma- 
jority of whom come directly from the Kindergarten, he 
has had unusual opportunities of observing the results of 
FroebePs methods of instruction. 

He has also been able to study the best means of 
blending Kindergarten methods with methods of the 
public school, in order that the children may pass in easy 
gradation from one to the other. 

Again, in studying the requirements of those pupils 
who had not received Kindergarten training, he has had 
an opportunity of applying such kindergarten methods 
as can profitably be introduced into public schools. 

The methods are specially adapted to graded schools, 
but the wants of rural schools have also been kept in 
mind. 

To be helpful rather than to be original has been the 
aim throughout. While some of the methods are the 
outgrowth of observations at Toronto, Oswego, and Cook 



VI PREFACE. 

County normal schools, the autlior humbly liopes that 
the enthusiastic searcher after truth will be able to pro- 
nounce the greater part of the work not only new but 
good. 

Within the narrow limits of such a book it has been 
necessary simply to state methods without attempting 
in any way to defend them, and the author must rely 
upon the charity of his fellow-teachers to give the 
methods a fair trial before condemning them. Realizing 
that it is always better to teach from a jprinovple than 
from a co^y, he has made the type-lessons very short. 
They are intended to be merely suggestive. 

He takes pleasure in acknowledging his indebtedness 
to Dr. Sheldon, Prin. Oswego IsT. and T. S. for phonic 
plate, page 63 ; to Miss Walter, Oswego IS", and T. S., for 
cabinet collection, page 125 ; and to all others who have 
kindly aided in the preparation of this work. 

S. B. Sinclair. 
Ottawa Normal School, March, 1894. 



FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 



CHAPTER I. 
INTRODUCTORY. 

An Important Work. 

To the primary teacher is entrusted the most arduous 
and, at the same time, the most responsible of all school 
work. She stands at the very starting point of school 
life, ready to switch the child off upon some side track, 
where he soon comes to a hopeless standstill, or to guide 
him forward upon the main line to a glorious destiny. 
First impressions are the most lasting, and during the 
first year the pupil decides whether school is to be to 
him dj happy home, or a hateful prison ; whether the 
object of his endeavor is to be the development of 
strength — physical, mental, and moral — or the cramming 
of the mind with a mass of indigestible facts, as useless 
as they are distasteful. 

When the special difficulty in dealing successfully with 
little children during the early or formative stage is con- 
sidered, it is not surprising that many eminent educators 
have concluded that the very best teachers should be 
placed in charge of the primary grades. 

Inner Connection. 

There are no two schools, no two pupils exactly alike, 
and no pupil remains the same for any considerable period 
of time. The teacher always finds herseK placed under con- 



10 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

ditions which have never existed elsewhere, and, even 
though she has spent years in careful preparation for her 
work, she finds it no small undertaking to discover what 
is best adapted to the special requirements of her pupils. 

The most important of all studies is the study of 
relations. Can we know anything but relations ? Are 
things really related as they appear to be related ? What 
relations hold in the realms of mind and matter ? What 
can be known conceTning the underlying principle which 
holds these relations together ? These are ultimate 
questidns in ^e profoundest philosophy. 

Any rational system of education must likewise rest 
in the final analysis upon principles evolved from a care- 
ful consideration of laws of relation. New conditions, 
and therefore new relations arise at every step. These 
must be carefully investigated. For example, there is a 
certain time in the life of a child when he should begin 
a particular study. A moment earlier may be too soon, 
a moment later may be too late. The proper time can- 
not be determined without a thorough knowledge of the 
relation which this subject bears to all others and of 
the law of the child's unfolding. 

Study of Child Nature. 

In her search for laws of " inner connection," and 
"ways and means to their expression," the thoughtful 
teacher is led to concentrate her study mainly upon child 
nature. She realizes that the highest result, whether for 
himself or others, can be reached by the child only 
through intelligent action coming from within, and she 
considers her greatest work to consist in stimulating his 
self-activity and in directing that activity into proper 
channels. 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 11 

As it is impossible to learn to swim without 
going into the water, and unwise to plunge in headlong 
without previous study or subsequent direction, so in 
every act the wise teacher combines doing with knowing. 
She sees in the pupil " the promise and potency of much 
that is to be " and directs her training in such a way that 
each experience shall be the occasion best calculated to 
develop the higher natural potentialities of the child 
and to submerge the lower. While attaching great im- 
portance to development she does not forget that there 
are many natural tendencies which are better undeveloped, 
and also that life is too short for the child to discover all 
truth for himself. Her watchword is spontaneity, but 
spontaneity tempered by judicious control. She exercises 
the greatest care at all times to preserve the golden mean 
between that view which considers the child simply a 
receptacle to be filled with knowledge, and the opposite 
one which looks upon him as " a centre where truth abides 
in fullness," and which would have the teacher's work 
consist entirely in " opening out a way whereby the 
imprisoned splendor may escape." 

She knows that, in early child life, sense impressions 
form a most important factor in the acquisition of know- 
ledge. Facts taught to the child parrot-fashion, without 
any empirical basis in sensation, are apt to be as meaning- 
less to him as the idea of color is to a blind man. But, 
on the other hand, it is as true that " intuitions without 
concepts are blind," as it is that " concepts without 
intuitions are empty." Before an impression from with- 
out can be properly termed a sensation it must possess 
a mental factor, and at any rate there can be no real 
knowledge without action of the mind. It is only by 



12 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

thinking that " a knowledge of things as related becomes 
a knowledge of the relations of things." Thus, then, 
while the teacher is careful to adopt objective methods, 
she is always vigilant in securing the child's attention 
upon the subject and having him do his own thinking. 
In this way when the concrete has answered its purpose 
it is discarded, and memory, imagination and reason are 
permitted to perform their proper functions. 

Relation to past and to future development. 

" The man who is not too big for his position is not 
big enough," and the teacher who thinks only of the grade 
limit prescribed for the first year at school cannot per- 
form that work in the best possible way. 

She should inform herself in regard to the previous 
training the child has received. His mind when he first 
enters the school room is not like a blank page. The 
chances are that he knows one-third of all he will ever 
know. The teacher should make the best of all the 
knowledge that the child brings by building upon the 
foundation already laid, in so far as that foundation is a 
solid one, and see that at the beginning, as well as in 
every subsequent stage, there is a clear fusion of new 
ideas with the old ones related to them. In this way 
the mother's teaching about people, places and things 
will be developed into History, Geography and Physics. 
Her instruction in regard to plants, animals, language, 
and numbers will be the stepping-stone to a knowledge 
of Botany, Zoology, Literature and Mathematics. The 
child's knowledge of his physical frame will form the 
groundwork for Physiology, and the lessons which he 
has learned in the home regarding right and wrong will 
be the foundation for his Ethical study. 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 13 

The pupils may also have received a Kindergarten* 
training, and if so, it will be best to adopt methods which 
will enable them to utilize the strength already gained in 
the Kindergarten in such a process of steady and natural 
advancement that they will experience no abrupt change 
ill the transition to the public school. 

Then, again, the superstructure should not be entirely 
forgotten. The pupil who can go to school for only four 
years may require a different training from the one who 
can remain at school for fourteen years. 

The first year at school should be a continuation, not 
only of the child's previous instruction, but also, as far 
as possible, of his previous child-life and habits. He has 
been accustomed to out-door exercise and to a thousand 
liberties which cannot be granted him at school. The 
change should not be too abrupt. Wherever practicable 
the true educator will introduce anything that will 
enhance the charm of school life. 

" Heaven Hes about us in our infancy, 
Shades of the prison house begin to close about the growing 
boy." 

The Primary Teacher will do well to see that the 
" light of common day " does not too soon break upon the 
immortal souls under her leadership. 



*The introduction of the Kindergarten has done much to awaken public 
interest in primary work. A careful investigation of the Kindergarten 
must convince every one that the songs, the games, the occupations, the 
homelike charm, and, above all, the heart culture to be found in it afford 
the best gymnasium offered for beginners. 

It will be a glad day for the children when in the public school they can 
receive a preliminary Kindergarten training before entering the primary 
grade. 



14 FIBST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

Size of Class. 

Forty children is the maximum for efficiency in a 
primary grade. In order to do efficient work the indi- 
viduality of each child must be studied, and this cannot 
be done in a large class. Better results will be attained 
by putting a primary class of sixty children on half time, 
teaching thirty forenoon and afternoon than by taking 
the whole sixty at once. 

The teacher who is compelled to take charge of more 
than forty children must spend very much of her time 
in preserving order, for, unless very carefully watched, 
fifty children will make twice as much noise as forty. 
The amount of work done by the teacher cannot be esti- 
mated by the number of pupils she has in her room. It 
is one thing to keep pupils quiet, and quite another to 
educate them, and the latter is by far the harder task. 

To plead for smaller classes is to ask not for easier, but 
for more efficient work. The best primary teachers 
seldom stand the strain for many years and do not gener- 
ally receive more than a mere pittance for their services 
They continue teaching because they love the work and 
have caught something of the spirit of the gifted Agassiz 
who said he had not time to make money. To the born 
teacher there are two great inducements in this work — 
one, that she will live in the memories of her pupils, the 
other that the world will be better for her having livec^ 
Such a teacher will labor harder with thirty than with 
sixty children, for in the former case the very joyousness 
of her work, will cause her to forget the strain on her 
vitality. 

The class should be divided into sections of ten or 
twelve children, each section being taught by itself. 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 15 

In this way the teacher has a manageable class. She 
can therefore study the special needs of each pupil, and 
promote from one class to another when the child is 
ready. The proper time to promote a child is when lie 
is ready to go on, not when the majority of the class 
are ready. Many a one has formed a permanent dislike 
for school by dreary drills upon what he already knows, 
or by what is even worse, attempting to grapple with 
work entirely beyond his powers. Such is apt to be the 
case when the teacher endeavors to bring all her class 
to a dead level of uniformity. Promotions from one 
section to another may be made daily. 

An Ideal Primary Teacher. 

The perfect Primary Teacher should first of all be 
heartily in love with child nature and feel herself 
instinctively drawn to little children. She should possess 
rare natural gifts, a good voice, a ready hand and a 
pleasing address, for by music and picture, and personal 
magnetism she will be able to win the hearts of her 
pupils. She should be widely read. Although it may 
not be necessary for her scholarship to be so profound as 
for advanced teaching, she will find that in order to hold 
the attention and answer the many questions proposed 
she must have an almost inexhaustible fund of informa- 
tion and be able to draw on it at a moment's notice. 

She should know something of heart culture experi- 
mentally. She should have sat at the feet of the Great 
Teacher long enough to have learned not only the value of 
objective methods, but also the great lesson of self-sacri- 
fice. While there should be nothing of creed or dogma in 
her teaching, she should, by " wearing the white flower 



16 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

of a blameless life," exercise a constant positive influence 
for good. 

Her professional training should have extended over, 
at least, one year, and would be much better for an addi- 
tional year in the Kindergarten and Normal School. 

She should know something of Psychology, not only 
theoretically, but practically, i. e., she should have 
learned to look into the mind and study its operations. 
Every method used should be adapted to the mental con- 
dition of the children and this adaptation requires, on 
the part of the teacher, the ability to discern the stage of 
mental development of the children, and a knowledge of 
the peculiar nourishment suited to that period of develop- 
ment. One of her greatest duties is to train children to 
think. She should therefore know what thought is, viz. 
the holding of ideas in relation. Her work will consist 
in part in the furnishing of the mind with materials for 
its future operations, and to do this it will be necessary 
for her to have an intelligent conception of the methods 
involved in this furnishing. She is thus at the outset 
met with the old question, "How do ideas come into the 
mind ? " a problem which she should have carefully 
investigated. 

To one who has thus prepared herself for her profession, 
there is a beauty in it never dreamed of by the untrained 
teacher. The work possesses an irresistible charm to 
her, and as time goes on she finds it necessary to guard 
against a fascination which makes her oblivious of all 
else but school. 

Danger of Discouragement. 
At the same time it is not wise for the teacher con- 
stantly to place herself alongside a perfect standard and 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 17 

feel how far short she comes of it. She who has an earnest 
desire to help children, and is able and willing to work, 
will in all probability in the end make a good Primary 
Teacher. 

More teachers and more pupils fail from discourage- 
ment than from any other cause. Many efficient teachers 
have become so deeply impressed with the importance 
and responsibility of the work and their own fancied 
unfitness for it that they have entered other less respon- 
sible and more remunerative callings, forgetting that 
their places are apt to be filled by teachers who care 
" nothirg for method, fitness or responsibility. 

There are few sadder sights than that of a primary 
school, where sixty, eighty, or perhaps a hundred 
children are huddled together in a dingy, ill-ventilated 
room, and placed under the charge of a nervous, over- 
worked, untrained teacher, to be driven, and cowed, and 
deadened until the last vestage of individuality has dis- 
appeared. There is, however, abundant evidence to show 
that in hundreds of just such schools the teacher, by 
receiving a little more sympathy and by gaining a know- 
ledge of better methods has caught an inspiration, which 
has been, in turn, communicated to children and parents, 
until in a few short months by a gradual and almost 
imperceptible change the miserable environments have 
given place to those more attractive and rational 

An Ideal School Room. 

There is something in addition to the cheery greeting 
of the teacher and the glances of welcome from the 
children that make us wish to linger here. There is a 
home-like charm which cannot be described. 



18 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

The air is pure, the light mellow, the room clean, the 
temperature uniform. 

On the walls are tastefully hung a few suggestive and 
valuable pictures which have formed the basis for stories 
to the children and which call up many remembrances. 
Above the blackboard in view of the class is a pretty 
motto formed from folded Kindergarten papers. On the 
window-sills are a few house plants and in one window 
is a large box of earth, the children's window garden, 
in which they have imbedded numerous tiny seeds which 
are now in various stages of development, and are soon 
to become treasured plants. On the teacher's table is a 
bouquet of natural flowers. There is an abundance of 
blackboard and on it we find many interesting things. 
Colored crayon has been used to good advantage. That 
pansy, so true to nature, was studied by the children last 
week, and now it remains an honored guest. Near it is 
a list of the dates when the respective seeds in the 
window garden were planted. That neat row of problems 
now screened from the pupils' view by a small ciirtain is 
the seat work in number which the pupils are to work 
on their slates and illustrate in various ways. 

This picture of a see-saw with three boys on either 
end, so evenly balanced that one leans forward every time 
to make the board tip, was drawn rapidly by the teacher 
yesterday in a number lesson to teach that J of 6 = 3. 
It is a rough sketch to be sure, but it is intended only to 
suggest other pictures to the children. Near it is a care- 
fully drawn picture of six stars arranged symmetrically 
to represent the number fact, and under the picture the 
equation "J of 6=3." The picture with the words "Late 
for School ' under it, and the one showing the position 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. i9 

of the hand in writing, as well as the pretty honor roll 
border, are from stencils and were put on by the pupils. 

The letters on the phonic ladder indicate the sounds 
learned. The column of words are difficult words learned 
in recent lessons. The circle with the combinafcion in the 
centre and single letters around the circumference indicates 
new words discovered yesterday by phonic synthesis and 
written on slates in short sentences. These words the 
teacher intends to weave into the reading story to-day. 
Here too are relics of the last drawing and writing 
lessons. In one corner of the room is a sand moulding 
table, and in another a cabinet containing materials for 
illustration and for seat work. In it also are supple- 
mentary Readers, a collection of specimens for Natural 
History study, and many other things which only the 
children who brought them can properly explain. 

The pupils have just finished their opening song and 
are sitting quietly in an easy position. There are forty 
children arranged in four sections, each section in a row 
ready for work. By a silent signal to monitors the 
teacher indicates that she wishes materials for seat work 
distributed. Half a dozen monitors step quickly to the 
cupboard and in a trice, without any confusion and with 
very little noise, we find the pupils supplied with materials 
and ready for work. 

The teacher then assigns seat work for three sections 
and calls up the forth for a lesson. Yesterday morning 
the geranium in one of the flower pots came out in bloom 
and to day the pupils have brought some flowers with 
them for they knew that they would require them. Five 
minutes are occupied in studying and conversing about 
the new flower, its name, form, size, color, number of parts, 



20 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

etc. The teacher then writes half a dozen short sentences 
upon the board, sentences which have been developed 
incidentally in the preliminary conversation and which 
involve only words the forms and meanings of which will 
be immediately and automatically recognized by the 
children. These sentences are read orally by the pupils. 
The teacher is en rapport with her class and when ten 
minutes have passed the children have become so inter- 
ested in the subject that on going to their seats they are 
anxious to read the cards which they find there and 
which contain printed stories about the geranium. These 
stories are all different and are for silent reading at seat 
while the teacher is engaged with the next section. 
After the silent reading the pupil writes his story on his 
slate or draws a picture to represent it. 

During the lesson the pupils at their seats are not as 
noisy as might be expected. True they sometimes 
whisper, but these are exceptional occurrences. These 
children are learning self-control. The child works away 
conscious that he is a spoke in the wheel. He looks up 
and sees a motto that he has helped to make and put up. 
He knows how the papers are folded ; he can fold them 
himself and he can read the motto too, " Willing Work- 
ers." He knows what that means. He hasn't entirely 
forgotten what the teacher said about it, nor will he have 
forgotten fifty years hence. He hadn't any plants to 
bring, nor even a flower, for the bouquet on the table, but 
over in that cabinet is a queer little stone which he found 
the other day and brought to school. The teacher said 
she never saw such a stone before ; it was just what she 
wanted, and when she showed it to the class they all 
thought it pretty. This is his school. " They love a 



PEIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 21 

fellow here." It was only last week he had to stay at 
home, and the teacher said she always missed him when 
he was away. He does not care to play truant from this 
school. 

As we walk down the aisle we see some very grotesque 
representations, but there is thought behind them all. 
This pupil, who to represent 6 — 3 — 1 = 2, has drawn a 
picture of six squirrels playing hide and seek, one count- 
ing, three secreted in various out of the way places, and 
two running to hide, is learning to propose questions aa 
well as to answer them. 

As we remain through the day we see that there is 
constant change, constant effort, an all-sided culture, 
natural, rational, homelike and healthful. This is the 
pupil's workshop where he develops muscle, mental and 
moral as well as physical. 

The teacher is glad to see visitors, she is in touch with 
parents and the public and wishes them to know what 
she is doing. The sight of a parent who has just " dropped 
in " to stay all the forenoon and has brought her work 
with her would be rather a source of pleasure than other- 
wise. 

A Well Balanced Self-Culture. 

Education aims at the full and harmonious develop- 
ment of all the powers, including those of hand and 
heart as well as those of head. It is a difficult matter to 
preserve the proper mean between extreme systems, 
which on the one hand limit the child's attention entirely 
to the three E,'s to the exclusion of all other training, and 
on the other hand dissipate the energy by flitting from 
one subject to another without remaining at any single 
subject long enough to make definite progress in it. 



22 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

While adhering rigidly to the principle of one thing at 
a time it is possible so to correlate the work of the school- 
room that each lesson will have an important bearing on 
all others. This unifying principle is indispensable. In 
every act, whether it be of class or seat work, there must 
be a consciousness of unity in diversity and an applica- 
tion of definite means to definite ends. If the highest 
possible success is to be achieved the child's self-activity 
must be aroused and his co-operation secured, and this 
can be best accomplished only when he is able to see a 
purpose in his work. 

In the following pages the subjects of instruction have 
been grouped under five heads, viz.: — 

(a) Language, including reading, composition, etc. 

(h) Number work. 

(c) Study of surroundings, including places and objects. 

(d) Manual training, including drawing, writing, gym- 
nastics, songs. 

(e) Moral training, including a study of self and others. 
This arrangement is followed as being more convenient. 

It is probably not the natur;d order, e.g., group (a) does 
not precede but goes hand in hand with and in a sense 
contains group (c). It is not the intention to lay down 
any hard or fast lines in this division, to limit the work 
entirely to these subjects, nor in dealing with any to 
entirely submerge the others. 



TIME-TABLE. 

The following time-table, which is merely suggestive, 

is adapted to a primary class divided into four sections, 

viz. : — A, B, C, D, where the subjects of reading, writing 

and natural science are taught to one section at a 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 23 

time, the remainder being occupied with Busy Work* at 
seats (see p. 46). The capitals R, N, and S, indicate 
lessons in reading, number and surroundings taught by 
the teachen Thus reading lessons are taught before 
forenoon intermission ; these are followed by number 
work until noon hour, after which natural science is 
taken. The small letters r, n, and s indicate busy (seat) 
work in the foregoing subjects. 

The figure 1 written to the right of the small letter 
indicates that the seat work is principally conventional 
and has a direct bearing upon the class lesson which im- 
mediately precedes it ; thus the teacher, in teaching the 
lesson N, will explain what she expects the pupil to do 
in seat work n^. 

The figure 2 indicates that the seat work is for review 
of work gone over in previous lessons. 

The figure 3 indicates that the work is to be in great 
measure spontaneous, the pupil being allowed consider- 
able freedom in invention. 

It is intended that the lessons be short, not occupying 
the full time assigned on the time-table, the remainder of 
each period being devoted to examining and assigning seat 
work. In many cases the whole class can be taken to- 
gether when the question of busy work will be much 
simplified. 

It involves less work for the teacher to give the same 
seat work to all at the same time ; e.g., in the following 
time-table when section A is called up for reading at 
9-10, sections B, C and D may all be given n 3. 

*The term "Busy Work" is applied to any occupation in which the 
pupil can be profitably engaged without the direct supervision of the 
teacher ; also to the materials used. 



24 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. i 

It is better not to divide a class into more than four 
sections no matter how many pupils there are ; neither 
is it well in a large class to take more than two subjects 

in sections on the same day, e.g.^ if reading and science \ 

are taken in sections take number with the whole class, j 

i 
Time-Table. 

Time. A. B. C. D. i 

9.00 a.m. Opening exercises, singing, etc. i 

9.10 R n3 s^ s' \ 

9.25 r^ R n» r« 

9.45 Physical training. \ 

9.50 n« r^ R n» | 

10.10 s n^ r R ' \ 

10.30 Forenoon intermission. \ 

10.45 N s3 n* ri 1 

10.65 n N 8» n \ 

11.05 Physical training. ■ 

11.10 s« n N s» ] 

11.20 r3 s2 n* N j 

11.30 Writing and drawing. ] 

11.56 Closing exercises. ;; 

12.00 Noon intermission. \ 

2.00 p.m. Singing. ; 

2.10 S r3 s' n» \ 

2.20 s' S r3 i« \ 

2.30 Physical training. 

2.40 r« s^ S r» \ 

2.50 n3 r3 s^ S \ 

3.00 Afternoon intermission. r 

3.15 Number, phonic or word drill. Language lesson „ ] 

3.30 Moral training, stories, literary gems, etc. \ 
3.55 Closing exercises, 

4.00 Dismissal. 1 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 25 

CHAPTER II. 

DISCIPLINE AND TACTICS. 

It is probable that the order of your school during the 
first three days will determine the nature of your order 
during the term. The first day is therefore a critical 
period in your school life. It is probably better to 
begin by erring on the side of sternness than on that of 
laxity. 

Your principal objects to-day are : (a) To create in the 
child's mind a favorable impression of school and teacher, 
(6) To establish a kind of order which will daily improve, 
and (c) To test as far as possible the relative standing of 
your pupils and to divide them into sections. 

The last is the least important. 

You must be kind as well as firm. Let the child see 
that school is going to be a pleasant home to him. 

Every moment of the time must be occupied, in order 
that he may be diverted from that feeling of homesick- 
ness which comes over the young heart when placed 
amid new environments, and that he may not be led 
into mischief through idleness, also that you may have 
an opportunity to study his nature when he is not 
thinking about himself. It will no doubt be a long day 
to you, but it will be a longer one to him. Let the little 
teaching that you do be your very best effort, animated, 
earnest, hopeful and interesting, so that the child will long 
to come to school to-morrow and hear your voice again. 
It is a great mistake for the teacher to do very much 
talking or teaching the first day. A merchant does not 
put all of his goods in the window. 



26 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

It will be necessary to take all the class together 
during the forenoon, and you must have your time-table 
thoroughly mapped out beforehand, so that there will be 
no hitch in the proceedings. You require materials for 
busy work more to-day than any other day of the term, 
and you should have them ready for distribution if 
possible. 

Avoid assigning work too difficult for the child. It is 
better to run the risk of giving him work that is too 
easy, for nothing will discourage a child quicker during 
his first day than to give him a task which he has no idea 
how to begin to do. Study than to find such work as 
may be adapted both to brilliant and to dull pupils, e.g.y 
the drawing of horizontal lines. 

Try to find out something of the nature of your 
class beforehand, the songs they know, etc. If any of 
your pupils have attended school bef re, utilize them to 
the fullest extent. 

On entering, if possible have pupils march around the 
room, hang up hats and take seats. If they can march 
to music let them do so. Be sure that the tune is one 
that they can keep step to, and one familiar to some of 
the pupils. 

Perfect order having been secured, proceed with very 
brief opening exercises, followed by singing. If children 
know songs, let them sing several. Few children can 
resist the influence of music, and if any of the little folk 
feel awkward and shy, lively singing will do much to 
cause them to feel in harmony with their surroundings. 

When a class can face and stand promptly on the 
word of command, they are ready for work. It will be 
well at this juncture to begin to teach them how to do 



PRIMARY TEACHERS* MANUAL. 27 

this. Give orders — ready — face — rise. On the word 
" ready " have pupils sit erect at end of seats, in position 
of attention. On the word "turn" have them turn 
facing the aisle, the feet being lifted noiselessly and 
placed in the best position for rising, the hand being 
placed on desk to assist in rising. On the word " rise " 
have children rise quietly and face front, standing in 
military position of attention. 

Never allow pupils to stand in a hurried or disorderly 
manner, no matter how pressed for time you may be. If 
you do, your discipline will surely suffer. 

Let the exercises during the first few days consist in 
standing, turning, marching and other exercises necessary 
to class management. Little children were not made to 
stand in straight lines. They like to do so for a short 
time, but cannot remain in the same position long with- 
out impairing their health. 

After the preceding drill, your class are ready to begin 
work. Have pupils in front seats distribute busy work. 
See that every child has something to do, and that the 
work has been thoroughly explained. Impress upon the 
pupil from the first that his best work is expected, and 
accept nothing which you are sure has cost no effort, 
always remembering to give a pupil credit for his best 
work, no matter how poor it may be. 

In order to secure the best results the teacher must 
examine all busy work. It takes time, certainly, but you 
lose more by not doing it than you can make up in the 
time you save. Feel yourself, and let the pupil feel, that 
you really want that work done well. Such a command 
as " Now you may make figures," given in a tone of 
voice which the children have learned to know means 



28 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

"I want to keep you working," will result in careless 
work which weakens the child. 

Utilize every opportunity to test the relative power of 
the children without interfering too much with the work 
in hand, and grade into sections as soon as possible. 
Learn the names of a dozen pupils as soon as you can. 
Deal with cases of discipline as they occur. When the 
first pupil leaves his seat without permission is the time 
for you to explain that you wish pupils to raise the right 
hand and receive permission before leaving their seats. 

Let pupils know that all grading and seating during 
the first few days is only temporary. When children 
grow restless vary the exercises by songs, calisthenics, etc. 

" There is a familiarity which breeds contempt " and 
the teacher v/ill find it better to hold the reins pretty 
tightly during the first week, if she wishes to be able to 
lay them down altogether after a time. 

Corporal punishment should never be used except in 
the most extreme cases ; however, if there is to be any 
occasion for its use, that occasion will probably arise 
during the first week. 

Very many young teachers fail owing to an undecided, 
vacillating manner at the outset. You must get attention 
before you can educate. When you once have your class 
in satisfactory condition, unbend a little. 

Adopt such discipline as your best judgment dictates. 
Do not be guided entirely by the opinion of somebody 
else. A system of discipline which will work like magic 
in the hands of one teacher may prove a complete failure 
in the hands of another, and vice versa 

If possible arrange your class so that each row of seats 
will contain a section. In apportioning busy work to 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 29 

those in seats to be done while one section is being 
taught, give such busy work as blocks, slats, script, etc., 
to alternate rows, and slate work to the remaining rows. 
Do not collect busy work and re-distribute to different 
rows but allow pupils to change seats, e. g. if you have a 
class of forty pupils, seated in four rows, 10 in each, give 
first section slate work, second section slats, third section 
slate work, leaving fourth section to be taught. 

Alter fourth section have had lesson and are ready for 

their seats, let them take seats in the fourth row. Then 

have the class face and stand, so that all in one row 

will stand in one aisle, then allow pupils of second section 

to take seats in the first row, third in second, etc., leaving 

the fourth row vacant, and first section standing ; then 

as busy work has not been collected, each section will 

have a change of work, and a rest in changing seats. 

Take first section to floor for lesson, and repeat until each 

section has done all the busy work, and had lesson, 

when each child will be found in his own seat. In some 

rooms the change may be made by the serpentine march. 

In appointing monitors to distribute busy work, water 

for slates, etc., it is a good plan to ask a backward or slow 

pupil to do the work. It will brighten him up and make 

him active. If you have an especially restless pupil, 

such work will be an outlet for his energy. It is well to 

appoint monitors for a week, and the office may be made 

a reward for conduct, or for work, and monitors who do 

not strive to do their work quietly and quickly should 

be changed at once. The choosiog of monitors, if not 

done very carefully, is apt to create a feeling of jealousy. 

Let it be distinctly understood vjhy you choose a certain 

pupil for a certain work. If he is chosen because he can 



30 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

do that work ^ell, every pupil who wishes a like honor 
will try to fit himself for it. Whatever plan is followed 
try to let no pupil feel that he is neglected or slighted in 
any way. 

In giving commands, first see that your command is 
such that it can be obeyed. Give it in a firm, decided, 
courteous tone, and insist on its being carried out. 

Let your rules be few, very few, but let every infringe- 
ment of them be followed by its natural punishment. 
If your bell says " Take position," never let it say 
anything else, and never ring it unless you want 
position. 

If children are told to raise the left hand when they 
wish to leave the room, do not allow a child to pass out 
until he has complied with the rule, but even here you 
must make exceptions for extreme cases and for children 
who do not yet know which is the left hand. 

Never attempt to give an order with one-half of your 
class listening, and the other half doing something else. 
Get attention first, and then speak. Always speak to 
your pupils in your natural voice, that is, if it is a pleasant 
one, if not, try to make it so, and never be snappy. Be 
as courteous to your pupils as to your friends. If you 
once gain their respect and love, you will have little 
trouble with order. 

Discriminate between noise and work, also between 
accidents, and intentional noises. Remember that your 
pupils are but human, and that accidents will happen. 

It is not wise to forbid little children talking. Forbid 
their talking too much or too loudly, and you can 
regulate the order so as to cause no inconvenience unless 
you are one of those teachers who cannot teach without 



PRIMAKY teachers' MANUAL. 31 

"perfect silence. If you are, you must do one of two 
things, either educate yourself to teach with the cheer- 
ful hum of work going on, or make the little ones be 
still and suffer. N"o child will work as well in a state of 
repression as he will in a state of freedom, and no child 
can feel free who must keep his lips closed for a very 
long period at a time. Noise from work done should 
not be considered out of place. Perfect silence and 
earnest work are almost impossible at the same time. 

Allow no whispering while teaching a lesson to the 
whole class, but when pupils are busy at seats allow the 
liberty of whispering at times. They will not abuse the 
privilege if the right spirit prevails in the school room. 
It is a good plan to have pupils try to work for ten or 
fifteen minutes at a time with lips closed. They rather 
enjoy this exercise which trains them to be like grown 
up scholars. 

If you forbid whispering, a few conscientious pupils 
will obey the rule. The majority of the class will pro- 
bably whisper if they get the chance, always with a 
guilty feeling, which soon tells for evil on the character. 

The same children have been accustomed to talk all 
day long at home, with perfect freedom, then what a task 
it must be for them to sit for even half an hour with 
their lips closed. 

Those who forbid all talking surely do not realize the 
hardship it is to obey that rule, nor the lonely, isolated 
feeling it gives one not to be able to communicate with 
one's neighbor. 

Go slowly at first with little children, and try to 
remember how hard it is for them to learn, and how 
often a thing must be repeated before they remember it 



32 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

Better spend two days at the beginning on one word, 
than be compelled to teach that word over again at the 
end of the term. 

In all your work be patient and hopeful. Try to see 
things in their proper light, not in the school-room light, 
as we often do. 

The slamming of a slate, the noise of whispering are 
annoyances, they are not crimes. A child is not necessarily 
had because he does these things. He should not be 
looked at or spoken to as if he had committed a grave 
offence. Do not take all the pleasure out of a child's 
school life by treating him as if he were your natural 
enemy. 

Be sympathetic with the little folk. If one of them 
tells you his grandma has a cat, at least look as if you felt 
an interest in that fact. 

It is well to create a kind of home feeling in the school- 
room, and if jom have only one pupil whose home is not 
all that could be desired, you may be giving him a few 
bright hours, and that is surely worth a little trouble. 

Do not govern your pupils : help them to govern them- 
selves. This end will not be reached, if you make a rule 
for everything that goes on in your room. 

Give your pupil the opportunity of exercising his 
power of choice, and help him to strengthen his will 
power. He cannot be taught too early that he alone 
must choose for himself the good or the evil, and abide 
by the result of that choice. It is possible to create such 
a spirit in a class, that if there be a thoroughly bad boy 
in it every pupil will feel it his duty to do all in his 
power to save that one. 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 83 

Do not do your work in a hurried manner, as if you 
were always trying to catch up. Be energetic without 
being fussy. 

Remember that the little people are watching and 
imitating you all day long ; yes, and discussing you, too. 
Be true. Children will discover a fraud more quickly 
than older people, and we all know the feeling of disap- 
pointment, and loss of respect and confidence that follows 
such a discovery. 

Do not remember a pupil's faults against him from 
day to day. You will foster prejudice and discourage 
the child. 

Never scold, threaten, or lose your temper. 

Private reproof is often the most effective. 

Do not deal with a serious offence when it is com- 
mitted, but wait an hour or two. Strive to prevent any 
open opposition to your authority. Violent methods 
of discipline mar the harmony of the school-room and 
often injure innocent pupils, who are compelled to gaze 
in trembling and humiliation upon scenes which stamp 
their impress indelibly upon the memory. 

Take it for granted that the majority of your class are 
on your side, and are desirous of doing what is right. 

Have a care for the phj'sical comforts of your pupils. 
The temperature of a room should range from 62° to 66°. 
It is almost impossible to preserve order in a room below 
60° or above 70°. Keep your room thoroughly ventilated. 
Lower windows from the top. If they have not been 
constructed to do this, they can be easily changed. 
Windows should be provided with curtains hung over 8. 
pulley at the top in such a way as to cover the lower 
part of the window and admit light at the upper part. 



34 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

If the children's feet do not touch the floor, have seats 
changed, or place something under the feet. 

Avoid corporal punishment. In no school -room should 
it be at all frequent. When used, the infliction should 
be in private, the instrument being a leather or rubber 
strap. The punishment should be inflicted on the palm 
of the hand. It is a good plan never to inflict such a 
punishment without the pupil's having flrst admitted his 
offence and the justice of his punishment. The best 
teachers never find it necessary to resort to corporal pun- 
ishment. Children are not angels by any means, but 
there is a chord in the heart of every child which can be 
touched by the earnest teacher, and she, who is born to 
teach, will find it, too, if she be left untrammelled. 

With weaker disciplinarians it may be necessary at 
times, and it is certainly better than the nagging, cuffing, 
etc , which is sometimes substituted for it. 

In your opening exercises be earnest, cheerful and 
brief. In some schools, pupils and teachers receive an 
impulse in the morning exercise that makes the life of 
each during the entire day a constant conscious approach 
to the Divine image, and such school-rooms are more 
numerous than some would have us believe. 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 35 

CHAPTER IIL 
LANGUAGE LESSONS. 

After enlarging on the importance and capabilities of 
the English Language, Mathews says " Let us carefully 
guard its purity, maintain its ancient idioms and develop 
its limitless resources, that it may be made if possible, 
even more worthy than it now is to be the mother tongue, 
not only of the two great sister nations whose precious 
legacy it is, but of the whole family of man. 

This appeal comes with special force to the Primary 
Teacher charged with the oversight of the child during 
the first stages of his development. Most of us remem- 
ber the difficulties experienced in early childhood in grasp- 
ing thought and in trying to talk like grown up people. 
How hard it was to understand some things and how 
easy to understand others that every one else thought 
were completely beyond our comprehension. When we 
framed our first baby sentences was there any one there 
to help us ? If so, we can never forget their kindness. 
Was there any one to mimic our feeble stammerings and 
make fun of our failings ? If so, their cruelty may be 
forgotten, but its evil result will ever remain with us. 
Many of us, too, have reason to regret early companion- 
ships, which have left us a legacy of incorrect expres- 
sions, slang phrases and faulty pronunciation. 

A whole school has been known to assume the 
pronounced brogue natural to a teacher who had taught 
the school for several years. If incorrect expressions are 
used by a teacher they will in all probability be repeated 
by the pupils. In scarcely any other particular is the 



36 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

old proverb so fully verified that "as is the teacher, so is 
the school." 

The main object of primary language lessons is to 
teach children to use language. The art of using lan- 
guage is learned by imitation and practice. In primary 
grades the child should be taught to speak good English, 
rather by exercises in conversation than by studying the 
underlying principles of the language. (See p. 110.) Very 
much of the difficulty under which English has labored 
in the past has been due to the mistaken idea that in 
studying text book Grammar young pupils were learn- 
ing to speak correctly. 

Again, language should be thought expression. If not, 
it is merely the saying of words. The pupil should 
speak because he has something to say, rather than 
because he is asked to say something. We should also 
see that the child has emphasized the thought before we 
ask him to emphasize the words. 

Two facts should therefore be constantly kept in mind 
by the teacher. 

1st. A child who has never heard any false syntax will 
not be likely to speak incorrectly. If, from earliest 
infancy he be placed amidst such environments as always 
to hear the best and purest English, be will by uncon- 
scious imitation speak good English himself. 

2nd. Words are useless and meaningless to us unless 
they represent ideas, the sequence being — ideas first, 
then words. 

Every lesson should be a language lesson. If the child 
says " I seen six boys," the teacher may say " You saw 
six boys," and during the lesson so direct the question 
and answers that the correct form will be used several 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 37 

times. It is often better to insist on the proper form 
being used at once, except with very young children, for 
there is no quicker or surer way to remedy a defect in 
English than to repeat the correct expression over and 
over again. It is better not to criticise an error in a 
Primary Language lesson, but simply to correct it. 

In taking this view, however, the great importance of 
language as the vehicle of thought and of language 
training as complementary and accessory to the study of 
things must not be overlooked. An object cannot be 
said to be fully known until we know its name. 

In all lessons on surroundings, etc., the child in his 
investigations of things unconsciously makes rapid 
strides in language study. His vocabulary increases with 
each lesson and he gains a power of description which is 
quite unattainable under the self-consciousness of a 
lesson on language, as such. His false syntax is inciden- 
tally corrected. He has practise in the use of correct 
forms and thus begins to acquire a habit of expressing 
his thoughts more perfectly. As he continues his in- 
teresting researches respecting the persons and objects 
around him his attention is more attracted to particulars 
and generals, and this results in a desire to begin the 
study of language proper. (See p. 110.) 

During the first year, the language teaching may be 
confined mainly to such lessons and to reading, etc., 
there being but few language lessons given only for the 
sake of language. 



38 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

CHAPTER IV. 
READING. 

On the subjective side, reading follows in logical and 
chronological order as a sub-department of language study. 
On the mechanical side it involves writing, spelling and 
voice culture. When properly learned it forms a helpful 
hygienic exercise, and as it furnishes a key to the investi- 
gation of all knowledge and is a valuable accomplishment 
in life it is usually considered the most important subject 
on the primary school curriculum. 

The subjects for the first year can be so related that 
the amount of time actually devoted to reading as such 
will not be so great as its importance would indicate, 
still it must be remembered that no other subject demands 
such careful preparation and skilful application on the 
part of the teacher. In this subject particularly it is 
necessary for her to avoid teaching anything which the 
child will require to unlearn. On this account she will 
find it better at first to hasten slowly. The stilted, 
mechanical, hesitating drawl so often acquired by begin- 
ners is largely due to an attempt to cover too much 
ground at first, and to compel children to read ready-made 
sentences containing the thoughts of others rather than 
their own. 

The child who looks forward to his reading lesson with 
pleasure will probably soon become a good reader. It is 
possible to teach the subject in such a way that the pupils 
wiU manifest as much interest in learning to read as they 
formerly did in learning to talk. They are quite as eager 
to assist in the work and experience as much pleasure in 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 39 

its performance ; for, apart from the utilitarian advan- 
tages which accrue from this second method of thought 
giving and thought getting (advantages which the pupils 
are not slow to appreciate) there is in the simple exercise 
of transferring their thoughts to paper and having them 
reproduced, a charm to the pupils which can scarcely be 
exaggerated. 

Reading is a means to an end. There is a great temp- 
tation to consider it the end in itself. It is probable that 
oral reading during the first school year is not nearly so 
valuable an exercise as it is sometimes considered to be. 
If a pupil can read to himself rapidly and can converse 
fluently, the amount of time required to teach him to read 
orally will not be very great. 

The child who has learned to recognize the words in a 
certain book and knows that it contains information 
which he is very anxious to obtain will read the book 
without urging, and there are various ways of testing 
whether he has extracted the thought, any one of which 
is as reliable as oral reading. 

A number of interesting and helpful supplementary 
readers can easily be obtained. By reading these silently 
as indicated, the pupil acquires the habit of rapid word 
and sentence recognition without the drawling habits 
often acquired by beginners. He also gains information 
and learns to like to read. 

Oral reading should however from the first accompany 
the silent reading, the teacher being careful to proceed 
in graded sequence from easy to difficult. 

Preparation. 
The whole question of expression in reading will be 
found to hinge on the "preparation which the reader has 



40 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

taken before attempting to read aloud. Let us endeavor 
to find out something of what is involved in this pre- 
paration. 

Conditions Essential to Good Reading. 

In order to get thought properly from the written or 
printed page there must be at least three existing con- 
ditions. 

First, the reader must be able without conscious effort 
to recognize each word form instantaneously. 

Second, each recognized word must at once bring the 
preformed concept of its meaning into the consciousness. 
The meaning of the word must be suggested immediately 
upon the occasion of the word recognition and without 
loss of mental energy. This implies that the meanings of 
all unfamiliar words must be taught before the passage 
is read. 

Third, these ideas must be placed and held in proper 
relation in the mind, e.g., to the thoughtless reader the 
sentences " The box is on the book," and " The book is 
on the box," may convey exactly the same impression, 
not because he has failed to grasp the meaning of the 
words, but because he has neglected to think the thought. 

He must go further than this, he must consider the 
whole selection in its unity, form a mental picture of the 
scene, read between the lines and endeavor to catch the 
spirit of the author, interest, attention and imagination 
being kept in lively exercise. 

The baldness of style so characteristic of the average 
schoolboy's translation of Latin or Greek is mainly 
attributable to the fact that he has studied the dictionary 
meanings of the words, and strung them together without 
fifoing far enough to comprehend the real meaning of the 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 41 

passage in its entirety. The worst features of the reading 
to be found in schools can be traced to a similar 
cause. A failure to know relations properly is a failure 
in all knowledge. 

In oral reading there must be at least three conditions 
in addition to the three already mentioned. 

First, the reader must know how the thought should 
be expressed, i.e., he must know the proper pronunciation 
of the words read and be familiar with the manner of 
expression used by those who are acknowledged to be 
good speakers. The statement that "if the reader has 
grasped the thought properly, expression will take care 
of itself," correct in a certain sense, requires very impor- 
tant modifications in dealing with pupils who from 
companionships or other causes have acquired habits of 
incorrect or slovenly expression. 

Second, he must have a complete and healthy vocal 
organism properly trained so as to be entirely subservient 
to the will. If he is tongue-tied, or is suffering from 
sore throat, or if he is not able with certainty to pitch 
his voice upon any required key his reading cannot be 
up to the mark. 

Third, he must possess a desire to express thought. 
This last is a most important condition and the one most 
often omitted. This desire may proceed from very 
different causes. It may be that the writing of his own 
spoken thought has aroused in him a wish to proceed to 
the converse act of converting the written thought into 
spoken language. The desire may be prompted by a 
feeling of helpfulness, a wish to impart pleasing inform- 
ation to others. It may arise from eagerness to show 
how well the work can be performed, or from a lively 



42 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

interest in the subject read which causes the reader to wish 
to be an actor in the imaginary drama. Whatever be the 
cause this spontaneous desire must exist, otherwise the 
rendition will be cold and lifeless. No where else is it 
so true that a volunteer is better than a pressed soldier. 
An Eclectic Method. 

The method suggested in the following pages begins 
with the word and sentence taught objectively and uses 
only script at first. It recommends the postponement in 
ordinary cases of oral reading from books for twenty 
weeks and the oral spelling of words until a subsequent 
period. 

It begins a course of voice training the first day, which 
quickly leads to phonics and takes phonic and word 
drill every day as an exercise, apart from the reading 
lesson. 

The pupil writes his first word in script. At an early 
date he is introduced to various whole arm movements 
and to elementary script forms. 

At the outset the child learns the true office of written 
words, viz., to represent thought. By confining the 
written form entirely to script at first the teacher is able 
to write sentences rapidly on the board when developed, 
the pupil's attention is not diverted by the difierence in 
the print and script forms, he learns the kind of writing 
and spelling which he will always use and likes the work 
even better than drawing. By slow pronunciation he 
discovers that there are certain sound elements common 
to difierent spoken words, and by a comparison of different 
written word forms he sees that there are certain common 
characters corresponding to the spoken elements. He 
learns the sounds of these characters (not the alphabetical 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 43 

name). He also learns to coalesce the sounds of the 
written characters presented in new word forms. He 
thus quickly gains a power which enables him, without 
the aid of the teacher, immediately and automatically to 
recognize new words. 

He is supplied with a large number of easy interesting 
stories for silent reading and at the conclusion of the year, 
with the help derived from the context and inductions 
from previous experience, succeeds in making out difficult 
new word forms. 

His oral reading at first is confined almost entirely to 
sentences which are the direct outgrowth of his language 
lessons. 

Before asking him to read a sentence orally the teacher 
is certain that all the requirements enumerated under 
the head of " essentials to good reading " have been filled. 

By taking the vocal exercises beginning on page 50 
simultaneously with the word and sentence lessons begin- 
ning on page 44, the pupil will usually be prepared 
to attack the phonic synthesis of a new word by the end 
of his second week at school. The word and sentence 
method may then be discarded except for the teaching of 
difficult non-phonic words. 

It is however not so much the object in these pages to 
indicate a method of teaching reading as, if possible, to 
ofier suggestions which will be helpful no matter what 
method the teacher adopts. 

Wherever in this and in succeeding subjects a method 
seems to be needlessly elaborated, such elaboration is 
made to suit the needs of slow and backward pupils who 
after all must be the objects of the teacher's peculiar care. 
Precocious children require but little assistance. 



44 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

For an investigation of different methods of teaching 
reading to beginners, see page 169. 

Word Recognition. 

The course prescribed in reading for the first year 
should admit of considerable freedom for spontaneity and 
individuality in the work. As a general limit the 
pupil might be required at the end of the year to 
be able to read with good expression any lesson in 
almost any ordinary First Eeader, when written either 
in script or print; also to write the words to dic- 
tation, to know the elementary sounds and to be able to 
recognize any easy word at sight. The average pupil 
can compass this limit and also do a large amount of sup- 
plementary reading, but the test for advancement must 
always be the strength of the child. 

The teacher may begin by teaching several presentive 
words as follows : — 

Lesson 1. — Word Method. 

Purpose. — To teach to read and write the word " dog." 

Plan. — Hold up a toy dog before the class and develop 
from the children such sentences as " I see a dog ; " "I 
have a dog ; " *'A dog can run." Bj a short conversation 
awaken interest in the subject. 

Draw a picture of a dog on the board. Under the pic- 
ture write the word " dog " and tell the pupil that this is 
the word " dog," or the chalk has said " dog." 

Draw pictures of dogs in various positions, developing 
such stories (sentences) as " I see a dog in a box." Rub 
out the picture of the dog and write the word instead, 
developing the same story as before. Write the word in 
new positions, developing new stories. Drill on the word 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 46 

by writing it in a number of places with other words, and 
having the children find the " dogs " and erase all other 
words. 

Have class take seats and copy the word on the ruled 
side of their slates, at first following you as you write the 
word slowly on the blackboard, explaining the process 
step by step. After this have them copy it from written 
cardboard. 

After three or four words have been taught in this 
way introduce the sentence. 

Lesson '2, — The Sentence. 

Purpose, — To teach to read and write the sentences — 
" I have a dog ; " "I have a fan ; " "I have a cup ; " "I 
have a box," to a class who know the words " dog," " fan," 
"cup," "box." 

Flan. — Develop from the children the sentence, "I 
have a dog." 

Write the sentence on the board and tell the pupil that 
the chalk has told his story. Ask another pupil to tell 
you what the chalk has said. 

Similarly develop and write the sentences, " I have a 
fan," "I have a cup." Drill on these sentences, letting each 
child read first his own story and then the other stories. 

Write the sentence " I have a box," and let the children 
try to make it out. If they cannot do so develop the 
story by giving the toy to a pupil and having him tell 
the story. 

Rub all out, send class to seats and write on the board 
the sentence " I have a dog," the class imitating you as 
in lesson I. 

The word " and " may be taught next* 



46 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

Lesson 3. — Word and Sentence, 

Purpose. — To teach to read and write the word " and," 
introducing it in a sentence. 

Plan. — Drill on the words already known. Have the 
objects — dog, fan, cup, box — on a table. Send one pupil 
to it, asking him to take any two things he sees on the 
table, and then tell you what he has, i.e. develop such a 
story as "T have a box and a cup," and write it on the board. 
Continue with such stories as " I see a dog and a fan," etc. 

Drill on the word " and." 

Busy Work* for Foregoing and Similar Lessons; 

Have children copy the new word from blackboard, or 
from script cardboard, that is, from a cardboard block one 
inch square with the new word written on it. Each child 
may have a little box in which to keep the words he has 
learned. Copy the sentence containing the new word, 
draw the picture and write the associated word or sen- 
tence below it. Find the new word on a written page 
containing other words. 

Outline the new word with pegs on desk, etc. 

Write a sentence containing the word learned yester- 
day. Divide all the words in word box into two piles, 
the known and the unknown. 

*The busy work is intended to furnish work for the children at the con- 
clusion of the lesson. (See p. 23. ) 

The suggestions are submitted as aids to teachers in teaching lessons 
similar to the type lesson. 

When busy work and suggestions are applicable to succeeding lessons, 
which is generally the case, they are not repeated, as the teacher will 
experience no difficulty in adapting them. 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 47 

Underline all known words on a written page. Read 
and draw pictures to represent stories written on the 
board by the teacher. 

Compose stories containing the new word and other 
words already learned. Write these stories and represent 
them with script blocks and pictures. 

Sugg-estions. 

Slates should be ruled according to directions, page 155. 

Have lines drawn on blackboard similar to ruling on 
slates and allowing about two inches for small letters 
These lines should be near the bottom of the board at 
suitable height for a small child to write on when stand- 
ing up. The lines may be painted upon the board or 
marked from day to day with chalked cord about eight 
feet in length. 

A good, plain, uniform hand, such as the Spencerian, 
is the best. It is well to write in large characters on the 
board when developing the word. The children may 
practice writing the word in the air before attempting 
to write it on their slates. This device will also be found 
helpful in drawiug for it enables the child to become 
accustomed to the " muscular sweep " required in making 
outlines. Freedom of movement is more important than 
accurate copy. 

Face the class and write on the board with the right 
hand. Always insert punctuation marks, and have the 
children insert them. 

See that the class have long pencils for writing, and 
that they observe the proper position of the hand. 

In tracing make the divisions as simple as possible, 
e.g ,111 writing the letter "u " have five steps, and explain 
each step by itself. 



48 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

Keep on hand a quantity of foolscap paper, cut in slips 
and ruled as indicated on page 155. On Friday afternoons 
let pupils write on these slips with pencils a story con- 
taining new words learned during the week and take the 
slips home as a sample of that week's progress. 

Do not expect the child to write well at first. All 
he can do is to try. Encourage him. 

In learning to write it is a better plan for the 
teacher to ask pupils to try to write the words so well that 
she can read them than to attempt to point out all defects. 

These lessons are only preliminary and should partake 
largely of the nature of play, e.g., in teaching the first 
word some such device as the following may be adopted 
to create interest in writing as a means of expression : — 
Have a pupil who can read go outside the door ; have a 
pupil lift an object on the table, or perform some act. 
Write a statement of what he has done. Call in the 
outside pupil who reads from blackboard and is thus 
able to tell what was done. 

Do not attempt to teach more than one word or sound 
per day at first, but teach that one so thoroughly that it 
will be as familiar to the pupil as his teacher's face. 

The picture and the written name or sentence should 
be left on the board for one day at least. 

Lists of all difficult words and sounds recently learned 
should be kept in view on the blackboard. 

These word and sound ladders should be constantly 
referred to and should be used for daily drill with the 
full class. 

Enliven the lessons by such devices as in the first 
lesson, letting the children frighten the " dogs " away by 
erasing them from th€ board, etc. 



PRIMARY teachers' MA.NUAL. 49 

Do not hold a class after the interest begins to flag. 

The class may answer simultaneously as you point to 
the name, but do not allow the children to repeat the 
name several times. 

Do not spend too much time in word d evelopment. 

Practice drawing the objects in your first year limit 
until you can draw a picture upon the board very rapidly. 
If possible every primary teacher should take a thorough 
course in drawing. 

Hang a curtain to conceal a small portion of the black- 
board. A picture drawn before school time may thus be 
kept from view until required. 

It is well to have a definite sequence to follow and to 
bear in mind what v/ords and sounds the pupil knows 
thoroughly. Otheis may with advantage be written on 
the board and used in sentences as occasion demands, 
but there should be a distinction between those and the 
ones actually mastered. A set of lithographed script 
words and letters has been proved helpful for busy work, 
and as a guide to the order of words. 

No sequence of words can be followed which will be 
the best for any two classes owing to the difierent con- 
ditions of difierent schools, e. g., the best sequence for 
city children would be difierent from that for children 
attending a country school. The most satisfactory 
sequence is that which is the outgrowth of language 
lessons. Such a lesson as that on p. 75 is much more in- 
teresting to a pupil than the one on p. 81. 

Pupils often enter schools with a knowledge of the 
alphabet and of the first few lessons in the reader. With 
such pupils it is usually wise to continue, although slowly, 
along the line of work already done with books, utilizing 



50 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

all information gained, and at the same time introducing 
phonics and script. 

Voice Culture, Phonics and Word Drill. 

During the tender years in the symbolic period of 
early child life Kindergarten songs with accompanying 
gestures furnish the very best means of unconsciously 
acquiring refined habits of thought expression in 
language. 

As the conventional period approaches there should be 
a continuation of such songs, properly correlated with 
the other work and suited to the advancing age of the 
child. There may also be gradually introduced definite 
exercises in calisthenics and vocal gymnastics. 

A sequence of vocal exercises may be prepared which 
will naturally lead up to word recognition by phonics. 

Word recognition can be taught more rapidly by the 
phonic than by any other method and every primary 
teacher must avail herself of this fact or lose valuable 
time. 

In any case where the teacher hesitates to begin 
phonics on account of not having had previous training 
she will, on attempting it, be surprised to find how easy it 
is to prepare herself for the work. It is well before begin- 
ning to teach the subject to learn to give all the sounds 
correctly and to spell any word phonically at sight with- 
out hesitation. Slow pronunciation is the key to success- 
ful phonic teaching. A little practice in pronouncing words 
slowly while reading from any book, and before a mirror, 
will enable the teacher when she meets such a word as 
" cough " to know at once that she should pronounce it 
with the three sounds, k-o-f, and also to know the posi- 
tion of the vocal organs. In addition to the information 



PRIMARY TEACHERS* MANUAL. 51 

contained in this chapter she will also find a good 
dictionary and any standard work on elocution helpful in 
preparation. 

The following sequence of preliminary exercises may 
be taken in the order of succession indicated or changed 
to suit the conditions of the case. It is sometimes better 
to devote several lessons to one exercise. Exercises such 
as the second may be taken with the whole class, but 
such exercises as the fourth are better taken in sections 
of ten or twelve pupils. 

How to interest the pupils in the lesson is the great 
problem. Do not make the lessons long; ten minutes 
is a good maximum. If the lessons are bright and partake 
of the nature of a game the pupils will quickly evince a 
love for them. No words are supposed to be written on 
the board during the first exercises. 

Teachers who begin with the word and sentence 
method can take these lessons the last half hour of the 
afternoon. Those who begin with phonic synthesis with- 
out first teaching any words as wholes can take them in 
the morning. 

First Exercise— Distinguishing Sounds. 

Have on the table a bell, a tumbler, a pencil, and a 
few other articles which will make difierent sounds when 
struck. 

The teacher says : " We shall have a game every day at 
this time. To-day we are going to play the game of 
sound. Now listen ! " The teacher strikes the bell and 
the glass with a pencil. " Those who notice any differ- 
ence between the sounds may raise their right hands. 
When I say * one ' you may look in another direction or 
close your eyes, and I shall strike one of these objects. 



52 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

then when I say * two ' some one may tell which one I 
struck. Ready, * one.' " The teacher strikes the bell then 
says " two," and then receives answers. 

Continue by testing with three sounds, then four 
sounds, and so on, also by taking sounds which are quite 
similar. Vary the lessons as much as possible, e. g., 
allow different pupils to do the tapping and take the 
answers. Children like this game so much that they 
very frequently play it out of school hours. 

Second Exercise. 

The teacher says : " We are going to play the game of 
* sound ' again." 

She asks pupils to make sounds made by dogs, cats, 
roosters, etc. " What does the dog mean when he growls ?" 
" How do we talk ? " She explains the method of 
breathing, and draws pictures on the board illustrating 
the use of lungs, mouth, etc. She develops the differ- 
ence between voice and breath, gives suggestions about 
breathing and speaking, and has pupils illustrate. Such 
exercises as the following may be taken : — 

Have the children place the thumb and forefinger of 
the left hand at the corner of the mouth, open the mouth 
wide and pronounce " ah," then " uh," " aw," " oo," notic- 
ing how the lips are drawn into a more rounded form 
with each succeeding sound. The pupils will readily per- 
ceive this from the fact that the finger and thumb are 
almost together when " oo " is pronounced. 

Third Exercise— Slow Pronunciation by Teacher. 

The teacher says : " We can all play the ' sound game 
so nicely that I think we may have a new game to-day." 
" We shall call it the ' tell what I say game.' " The 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 53 

children listen attentively and repeat the familiar words, 
Sam, Tom, dog, cat, etc., which the teacher speaks in the 
ordinary manner. She continues as follows : — " One day 
Willie's mamma sent him on a very long message, and 
when he arrived at home he was so very tired he could 
hardly say a word. I shall now talk as Willie did when 
he was tired and you may see if you can do what I tell 
you." " Put your hands on your h-ea-d." " Touch your 
ch-i-n." " Turn a-r-ou-n-d," etc. The teacher pronounces 
the words slowly and the children perform the acts. 

The following day the teacher says : " We are going to 
play the ' tell what I say ' game again. I shall tell you 
a pretty story slowly, and if there is any word you do 
not hear raise your hand and I shall say it faster, and 
when I finish some one may tell me as much as he re- 
members of the story." 

" Johnny was a little b-oy who lived in the country. 
One d-ay his fa-ther took him to the c-i-ty. Of all the 
pretty things he s-aw that day, there was nothing e-l-se 
that pleased him so m-u-ch as a toy balloon, so he bought 
it with some money his father had given him to s-p-e-n-d 
as he pleased," etc. 

By observing the pupils closely the teacher will be 
able to gauge her speed correctly. At first, pupils do 
well if they can coalesce one break in a word, thus s-pan, 
they find two harder, thus s-p-an, and three more difficult 
still,, s-p-an. It requires some practice for the teacher to 
make definite gradations from easy to difficult. As a 
rule pupils have little difficulty in doing this work ; some, 
however, may find it too hard and with such it is well 
to postpone word recognition by phonics until the ear 
has been sufficiently trained to distingish sounds 



54 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

readily. Children are always delighted with a story and 
never tire of this exercise. 

Fourth Exercise— Slow Pronunciation by Pupil. 
The teacher says : " We did not finish our game of 'tell 
what I say/ yesterday. There is another part of it 
which we have not tried yet. One of you may be the 
teacher. I shall say a word slowly first." The teacher says 
" s-u-n." Children know the word and raise hands. Then 
she selects a clever pupil from whom she has received a 
correct answer, and says : " Now, you give us a word and 
see if we can guess it." The pupil pronounces some word 
slowly and asks another pupil to tell what she said, and 
so on. This method, which seems hard in theory, is com- 
paratively easy in practice, and pupils are always eager 
to try. 

Show the pupil that in some cases he cannot make the 
correct form by itself. He can do that only when he 
pronounces the word, e. g., in giving the sound of " t " in 
the word "cat," the sound is made almost instantaneously. 
In speaking a word naturally, a child gives its phonic 
spelling in the most perfect way possible. 

Caution the pupils against an explosive vocalization of 
a sound, such as " bu " for " b." It is better for pupils to 
whisper such sounds and soon to learn to think them in 
word recognition without uttering them audibly. If 
pupils exhibit a tendency to form a habit of drawling 
words, discontinue this exercise. 

Fifth Exercise— The Naming of Respective Sounds of 

Words. 
The teacher says : " We shall have another game to- 
day. You are getting so very strong that I think it 
shall be a harder one. Everyone will try his very best 
to win it. 



PKIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 65 

How many words in this story ? ' Good morning, Mr. 
Squirrel ! ' What is the first word ? what the second ? 
etc. You can break up stories into words, I wonder if 
you can break up words into sounds. We shall try. 

How many sounds in the word * sat ' ? 

What is the first ; the second ? " etc. 

Continue very slowly with other words, gradually in- 
creasing in rapidity until the pupils experience no diffi- 
culty in naming the respective sounds in easy words. If 
the pupils find it difficult to isolate the elementary 
sounds and pronounce them correctly when apart the 
teacher may enunciate the words slowly so as to make 
the division, having the pupils tell the number of 
sounds and give only the first sound. 

Sixth Exercise— Naming Words Containing Certain 

Sounds. 

The teacher says : " Give me a story with the word 
* dog ' in it. Give me another, etc. Give me a word 
containing the sound 's.'" Pupils give a number of 
words, e, g., so, snow, etc. 

This exercise requires more thought on the part of the 
pupils, but as a rule they like the game and surprise the 
teacher with the strength they have acquired. 

When the pupils can name words containing easy 
sounds they are quite ready to learn the sounds of the 
letters. They may reach this point in six lessons. 

Seventh Exercise— Discovering and Learning the Writ- 
ten Character which Represents the Sound "A." 

The teacher says : " We found we could break up 

spoken words into parts, and we found the same sound 

in many words, we are now going to try to break up 

written words into parts. 



56 FIKST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

What is the first sound in the word * at.' " Accept the 
answer, write the word " at " on the board, and ask 
pupils to give another word which contains the sound 
" a." Write a number of answers on the board. Ask 
pupils to draw the ehalk around that part of each word 
which says " a." Write a large script letter " a " very 
plainly on the board and the word " at " alongside of it. 

Develop from the children the position of the vocal 
organs in making the sound and draw diagram on the 
board. (See p. 63.) 

.By a looking-glass or some other device, impress upon 
the child the correct position of the organs in making 
the sound. 

The letter and its sound may be impressed by some 
such device as the following : — 

The teacher says : " This letter reminds me of the story 
of what Tommy heard. Tommy was a little boy who 
lived in the city. One summer he went to visit his uncle 
who lived in the country. The following morning he got 
up very early, and when he went outside he found that his 
uncle was going to market with a load. He saw a number 
of things shaped like this (the teacher makes an oval 
on the board) which his uncle was packing in a box which 
they just fitted like this, (0000) leaving a space between 
each one so they would not break. He had some hooks 
to take to the town, so he packed one hook between each 
of the eggs like this {aao). When the eggs felt the cold 
hooks beside them they cried out, 'a,'* a.' Did you 
ever hear anything make a sound like this ? Yes ; the 
little lambs say ' a,' ' a.' 

When you go to your seats you may write this letter a 
great many times on your slates and draw pictures of 
anything that makes this sound." 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 57 

If the teacher concludes to introduce print at this 
stage she may write the print letter beside the script. 

Busy Work. 

Have children copy " a " from the card board and write 
all the words they know containing ''a." 

A number of card board or paper letters may be given 
to each child, and he may select all the " a's " from them. 

Pupils may take all the words containing " a " out of 
their word box. 

Give each pupil a column of newspaper and let him 
draw a pencil mark through every " a " he sees. This 
device may also be used with a page of script words. 
The same columns may be used as busy work wlien the 
child is learning other letters. 

Draw a picture of the position of the vocal organs in 
making the sound. Also a picture of anything which 
makes a similar sound. 

Sequence. 

The following sequence may be found helpful : — 

First stage. — a, t, m, s, p, b, r, o, f , v, n, w, h, e, 1, d, z, u, 
g, k, q, c, i, y,j. (Seep. 55.) 

These combined with diagrams — at, am, ab, etc., to form 
new monosyllabic words, (a) by prefixing letter to diagram, 
(b) by affixing letter, (c) by internal change. (See p. 64.) 

Second stage, — Long sounds of vowels a, e, i, o, u, 
(See p. 67.) 

Third stage. — sh, ng, th, wh, ch, tch, oo, oy, oi, ow, ou, 
qu, tion, aw, ei, gh, ph, au, etc. (See p. 70.) 

Type Words. 
If the child forgets the sound of a letter it is a good 
plan to have it associated with some type word to which 



58 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

he can refer as a key to its rediscovery, instead of trying 
to remember the sound made by the teacher. The lesson 
may be taken up in such a way as easily to form this 
association, e.g. If in teaching the sound of '* s " the 
child knows the words " at " and " sat " he will usually 
by observation be able to mark off the letter, and by slow 
pronunciation to discover the sound at once. 

If the type word has not been previously taught a 
sentence containing the word can be quickly developed, 
written on the board, and the word and sound taken 
together. 

The following list of type words and the letters with 
which they may be associated is suggested. 

z — laz}^ j — join. 

u — up. n — box. 

g — get. sh — shed. 

k — kid. ng — ring. 

q — quit. th - -thin. 

c — cat. wh — whip, 

i — it. ch — chip. 

y— yet. 

Stories. 
Such devices as that of the story of the eggs, introduced 
as suggestive of the sound and form of the letter " a," 
while appearing childish when written down, are invalu- 
able in adding interest to early phonic lessons. When 
the teacher prefers beginning with phonic synthesis 
before teaching any words (as many good teachers do), 
she will find that such devices form a happy means of 
introducing the letter and its sound. It is well, if possible, 
to have the form suggested resemble both the script and 
print form of the letter. The experienced teacher will 
not find any difficulty in preparing an appropriate story 



a — at. 


f —fat. 


t —at. 


V — vat. 


m— mat. 


n — not. 


s — sat. 


w — wet. 


p — pat. 


h —hat. 


b — bat. 


e — end. 


r — rat 


1 — lap. 


o — on. 


d —doll. 



PEIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 69 

for each letter when beginning. When the developing 
mind of the child no longer needs such devices they are 
to be discarded. 

The f ollov^ing are suggested : — 

" t " — May represent an old man with a board on his 
shoulder, who stutters and says t-t-t-Tommy. 

" s " — The sound the snake makes. 

" m " and " w " — The sound of the wind. 

" p " — The sound of the engine. 

"v" — The sound we make when we are cold. 

" z "—The buzz of the bee. 

" wh " — The sound that blows out the light. 

«< J, »» — rj^^Q ^Qgg growl, etc. 

Position of the Vocal Organs. 

Although the teacher possesses the power from word 
analysis to determine by induction the correct position of 
the vocal organs in the formation of each sound, it may 
be of service to you to have these indicated. On this 
account the following description is submitted : 

The nature of the sound depends on two things. The 
air from the lungs may be driven against the vocal 
chords and its force spent in causing them to vibrate, 
the column of air above the larynx being thereby put in 
vibration, or it may be emitted without being converted 
into vocality, e.g., the two sounds of " s " in the words 
" has " and " so." In the latter case the air is made 
audible by a rushing sound given to it on being driven 
through some compressed opening, either of the glottes 
or of some of the speech organs. When the air is made 
vocal it is called " tone " or " voice," if not vocal '' breath " 
or " aspirate." 



60 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

" a " — In making " a " open the mouth and lips wide, 
keeping the tongue in its natural position, and cause the 
voice to pass suddenly between the tongue and palate, 

" t " — In making " t " apply the edges and point of the 
tongue to the upper gu.m, compress the breath and cause 
it to escape by suddenly romoving the tongue. (See p. 63.) 

" m "—In making " m " close the lips, compress the 
voice and cause it to escape through the nostrils. 

" s " — In making " s " the throat and lips are open, the 
teeth separated, the sides of the tongue touch the teeth 
and the roof of the mouth. The tip of the tongue nearly 
touches the roof or the mouth just above the front teeth. 
The breath is softly hissed out through the narrow open- 
ing. 

" p " — In making " p " the lips are pressed tightly to- 
gether. The breath is compressed in the mouth and 
allowed to escape with a gentle puff by the sudden 
separation of the lips. 

" b " — In making " b " place the organs in the same 
position as for " m." Close the nasal passage and cause 
the voice to make a muffled sound. When the lips are 
opened a gentle puff is produced. 

"r" — In making "r" raise the point of the tongue 
towards the upper gum and cause the voice to escape so 
as to make the tip of the tongue vibrate. The sound is 
not heard before a consonant. 

"o" — In making "o" open the mouth wide, round 
the lips, raise the tongue slightly and cause the voice to 
escape suddenly. 

•' f " — In making " f " the throat and lips are open, the 
teeth separated. The middle part of the lower lip is 



PRIMARY TEACHERS* MANUAL. 61 

placed against the edges of the upper front teeth. The 
breath is driven out between them. 

" V " — In making " v " the position of the organs is the 
same as for " f ," the voice being driven out in the same 
way that the breath was in making " f." 

" n " — In making " n " place the edge of the fore-part 
of the tongue firmly against the upper gum. Compress 
the voice and cause it to escape through the nostrils. 

"w" — In making "w" round the lips and cause the 
voice to escape so as to blend with the following vowels. 

" h " — In making " h " place the mouth in the same 
position as for " a " and allow the breath to escape gently 

" e " — In making " e " place the organs in the same 
position as for " a," open the mouth a little wider> enlarge 
the back cavity by raising the tongue a little higher and 
cause the voice to escape suddenly. 

" 1 " — In making " 1 " place the tip of the tongue against 
the upper gum and cause the voice to flow over the edges 
in a pure tone. 

" d " — In making " d " place the organs of speech in the 
same position as for "n," and close the nostrils. An 
endeavor to produce voice without removing the tongue, 
results in a muffled sound being made in the throat, a 
slight pufi being heard on the separation of the tongue 
and gum. 

" z " — In making " z " round the tip of the tongue and 
bring it near the gums of the upper front teeth, pressing 
its sides firmly against their inner surface, and cause the 
voice to flow between its broadened point and the upper 
gum. 



62 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

" u " — In making " u " open the mouth not quite so 
widely as for " a," raise the tongue somewhat, and cause 
the voice to escape suddenly. 

" g " — In making " g " place the back of the tongue 
close against the soft palate and compress the voice. An 
effort to produce voice causes a muffled sound in the 
throat, a clicking sound being made on the separation of 
the organs. 

" k " — In making " k " place the back of the tongue in 
contact with the soft palate, compress the breath, and 
cause it to escape with a slight puff. 

" X " — In making " x " sound " ks " very quickly. 

" c "— " c " is made exactly like " k." 

" i " — In making "i" arch the tongue and raise it toward 
the roof of the mouth, the point being depressed and 
the lips narrowed, the mouth slightly open and the back 
cavity enlarged. Cause the voice to escape suddenly. 

" y " — In making " y " raise the tongue towards the 
hard palate, dilate it against the upper side teeth, and 
cause the voice to pass through its narrow passage so as 
to blend with following vowels. 

" j " — In making " j " place a portion of the tongue 
near the tip against the palate, near the upper front teeih 
and attempt to sound the voice. 



64 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

The vocals may be sung up and down the scale or to 
some well known tune. 

A familiar song may be adapted by changing the 
words, e.g. the song " It is lovely May " might be chang- 
ed to, " What is this the letters say " ? etc. 

Similar sounds may be taken together, e.g. " f " and 
"V," "m" and"n," "p"and"b," "t" and "d," "k" and "g." 

Phonic Synthesis. 

After several sounds have been learned, begin word- 
building. Call attention to the fact that as the words 
already learned have been made by putting letters together, 
so other words can be formed with letters. 

" "What is the first sound in ' am ? ' " Ask pupils to 
write the letter that makes that sound on the board or 
slate. 

" What is the second sound ? " Have them write the 
letter which makes that sound close to the letter " a " on 
the right hand side, and join the letters together. 

Have children tell the word they have written. Pro- 
ceed similarly with other words. 

It does not follow that a pupil thoroughly knows 
a word when he can write it in this way. After a little 
practice he will write a dozen new words in a minute 
and perhaps the following morning will not be able at 
first sight to recognize one of them when written for him. 

The objects of the exercise are to train the child to 
observe and think sounds, and to lead him to the synthe- 
sis of both letters and sounds. 

If the teacher prefers, she may begin the synthetic 
word-building without the analytic step just mentioned, 
proceeding thus : The teacher writes " a " and " m " upon 
the blackboard, first far apart, the pupils giving the 
sounds of the letters. She then writes them closer together 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 65 

and the sounds are given with shorter interval She 
continues this until the letters are joined, when the sounds 
follow without any pause. The pupils will then readily- 
read a sentence containing the new word. 

The child who has realized by experience what a bar- 
rier the word form interposes between him and the thought 
which he wishes to gain from the interesting written 
story, rejoices in the power which he gains by phonic syn- 
thesis. With many this impelling force is so strong 
that when they gain the clew to discovery they hurry on 
without assistance. It is well, however, to have a defi- 
nite sequence from easy combinations to difficult. 

At first take the synthesis of two-letter words familiar 
to the child, thus : " am," " an," " at," " if," " in," " it," etc 
When all such words have been discovered draw a circle 
on the blackboard and write one of these words in the 
centre, and around the circumference all letters which, 
when prefixed to the word will form familiar three-letter 
words, thus : 

Q In assigning such work the teacher mentally 

^/^ N, runs over the entire alphabet (beginning 

H an J with " a '*) in search for letters, avoiding 

^V y combinations of which the child does not 

t as yet know the meaning, e g., ban. Next, 

write the word in the centre of the circle and around 

the circumference write letters which, when affixed to 

the word make new familiar words, thus : — 

.d 



m 




t 

All words formed from " an " may be said to belong to 
the "an family/' Prefixed letters may be called ''front 



66 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

door keys ; " affixed letters " back door keys," and letters 
inserted by internal change " inner door keys." 

The work just indicated will, of course, include hun- 
dreds of new word forms, the meanings of which are 
familiar to the child. The object of the exercise is not 
so much to teach to remember the word form as a whole 
as to develop power in coalescence, so that when the 
pupil meets any new phonic word he will know it auto- 
matically. The words thus formed may be introduced 
in the next reading lesson. 

After the first few lessons there need be little oral 
synthesis. The teacher writes the circle diagram and 
letters on the board as previously indicated and the pupil 
for busy work first writes the words on slate or paper in 
a column, e.g., can, fan, man, etc., then weaves these words 
into stories, e.g., the squirrel can run. Or, the teacher 
may write on the board a continued story containing 
blanks for new words learned and the children may 
write the story, filling in the words in their proper places. 
Such busy work exercises are preferable to that of 
allowing pupils to build new words indiscriminately by 
phonic synthesis. 

It is probably better not to allow pupils to write mis- 
spelled words. ks they develop strength, proceed 
to words of more than three letters, thus : rap, trap, strap, 
straps. The pupil may subsequently be drilled on all 
possible combinations, as " ap." 

When pupils are discovering new words in class have 
them whisper the word to you. 

In word recognition, avoid spending too much time on 
the word form and not enough on the meaning, otherwise 
you will send the child away with his mind filled with 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 67 

the idea of the construction of the word to the exclusion 
of its use. 

It is well for some time after beginning phonics to 
confine the new words mainly to phonic words. 

After the short sounds of the vowels and the consonants 
have been taught, introduce the long sounds of vowels. 
Pupils usually learn the names of the letters of the alpha- 
bet at home and thus know the long sounds of the vowels 
already. If not, they can be discovered easily, as in the 
case of previous sounds. Those who prefer using 
diacritical marks may adopt some such device as the 
following : 

Ask the children to write a word like " baker," or 
" paper," on their slates. The child meets with a diffi- 
culty, for he does not know what to put down for the 
long sound of " a." Tell him that one day " a " was try- 
ing to, carry a bar on his head without letting it fall. A 
little fairy came along and said to him that whenever he 
had that bar on his head he would not be able to say 
what he usually said, but that he would have to say his 
own name. 

It is better, however, to avoid any extensive use of 
diacritical marks and to dispense with them as soon as 
possible, allowing the pupil to make his own inductions 
without them. 

A few general principles of spelling may be referred to 
incidentally, but not very many, or the exceptions will 
prove more perplexing than the difficulties to be over- 
come. 

Group the five vowels together. Write a number of 
examples, such as : " time," " sail," *' read," etc,, on the 
board, and lead the pupil to discover that in each of the 



68 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

words there are two of the vowel group, one having the 
long sound and the other being silent. Tell them when 
they meet a new word with two vowels in, to try if one 
is not long and the other silent. The fact that such is often 
the case may be impressed by a story of five little sisters 
who liked to go visiting in pairs. When two of them 
were together one generally spoke louder than usual 
and the other kept quiet. The advantage of a know- 
ledge of this principle will be seen in the power of new 
word discovery which a pupil would possess in attempt- 
ing to read such stories as the following : — 

Conversation Story, after Lesson on the Pansy Bud. 

(See page 123.) 

FOR WORD RECOGNITION AND ORAL READING. 

" mamma, what do you think I have seen to-day," 
said Cora Bell. 

" I saw a dear little pansy-bud wake up." 

" Did she rub her eyes and say she was * so sleepy,' 
Cora ? " said her mamma, with a smile. 

" Oh no ! She was asleep under some green leaves 
and I peeped in and saw a drop of dew fall on her." 

" Did she shiver then ? " 

" Yes, she shook herself and leaned over to look at the 
sun. Then up she rose, and all the green sepals fell back. 
She wore the prettiest dress. It was pure white, like 
mine, mamma." 

"What did she do then, my dear ?" 

" Why, she just held up her face for the dew to wash 
it. I was going to pick the pansy for your hair, but 
she gave me such a sweet smile that I did not like to 
break her off I " 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 69 

" It was good of you to think of mamma, but the little 
pansy fades so soon it was better to leave her in her 
garden home 1 " 

Conversation Story, after Lesson on Squirrel. (See p. 115. ) 

FOR WORD RECOGNITION AND ORAL READING. 

** Rob., Rob., come here and see my squirrel ! " 

" Oh, what a fine one he is ! Where did you get him ? " 

" My father gave him to me last week." 

" See, Will, he puts his head on one side and peeps at 
us ! Is he afraid ? " 

" Afraid ! No indeed ! " 

" Why do you keep him in this box ? " 

" Well, you see, Rob., he may run up this tree and soon 
reach his home, for he likes the woods far better." 

" Look, how he puts his feet between the wires. And 
what a queer shape his head is — just like a rat's ! 

" Yes, it is an oval shape. See his dark eyes and his 
pointed ears ! 

" And oh ! Will, what long, sharp teeth ! ' 

" Yes, they need to be sharp to bore holes to reach his 
food." 

" Why, what do you feed him on ? ' 

" Oh, he likes beech nuts and acorns best. Some-times 
he gets a seed cake too, for he is fond of sweet meats ! " 

Have pupils for seat work compose sentences contain- 
ing new words written on the boards in lists, each word 
of which involves a certain feature of the general rule. 
Pupils do not find the application of this rule very hard. 

The less general principle of the silent finat *' e ** may 



70 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

bo similarly emphasized, or treated as follows where 
diacritical marks are preferred : — 

The teacher writes a word like " cap " on the black- 
board and asks one of the pupils to alter it so as to make 
it " cape," the child, if accustomed to marking, naturally 
puts a bar over the " a." 

" Yes, that would be a way, but I can make it ' cape ' 
in another way." 

The teacher places an " e " at the end of " cap," and then 
proceeds similarly with " pin," making it " pine," '' tub " 
" tube," etc. 

The pupil will readily perceive the effect of the " e." 

To teach combinations such as " sh," a word may be de- 
veloped and analyzed, or the combination may be taught 
as follows : — 

The teacher says : — " What does mother say when baby 
is asleep, and any one makes a noise ? " The answer 
comes readily : " sh," or hush. The teacher says (making 
" s " and " h " close together on the blackboard) " These 
are two quiet children who like to play together, and 
when other little girls, and boys come near they always 
say ' sh.' " 

Teach one new phonic fact every day until the end of 
the year. After completing the sequence suggested on 
page 57, the sequence of any good first reader may be 
followed. 

The object to be constantly kept in view is to train the 
child so thoroughly in phonic synthesis that when a new 
word is presented which involves powers of letters al- 
ready learned the pupil will name it instantly and with- 
out conscious effort. 



PRIMARY TEACHERS* MANUAL. 71 

By extensive reading of easy stories he quickly learns 
to recognize words by every means at his disposal, e.g., 
the context will often afford the clew required to make 
him certain of the word. 

It is probable that in our own reading we do not 
always recognize words in the same way. We may note 
the first and last letters and from the chain of thought 
grasp the meaning and hasten on, or we may recognize 
the whole word, or phrase, or sentence as a unit. 

Expressive Reading. 

This is the most difficult of all primary work. Re- 
cognition of word forms is necessary, but as we have 
seen, it is not all that is required. The teacher should 
keep from the child as long as possible the impression 
that reading is different from talking. She may begin 
with short conversations, leading the child to talk to her 
and tell her about his home and objects of interest to 
him until he can describe a scene so well that he makes 
her see it. This will require great tact, labor and 
patience on the part of the teacher. She may then train 
him to reproduce stories that she has told him. One of 
the most valuable results of the language lessons, on sur- 
roundings, described later on, is that they prepare the 
child for oral reading by furnishing his mind with ideas 
and training him in the art of expression. 

Have the children describe pictures. Two dozen of 
these may be selected and pasted on common cardboard. 
They should be interesting and well executed. As a 
preparatory lesson hold up a picture before the class, 
withdraw it quickly, and allow the children to tell you 
all they saw. If they are not given very much time to 



72 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

look at it +hey will learn that they must concentrate their 
attention on the work. Continue this until they have 
discovered nearly everything in the picture and have 
described it fully to you, but do not weary them. For 
the next lesson give each child a picture, and, after allow- 
ing five minutes to study it, let him tell its story. Let 
the test of a good story be the power to tell it in such 
a way that the others who have not seen the picture 
can draw a similar one from the description given. 
They may also exercise their imaginative and inventive 
powers in giving their interpretation of the picture, e.g.^ 
what the persons portrayed in the picture are doing, and 
why, etc. It is possible to create such an enthusiasm in 
this exercise that on the following day you can distribute 
pictures to the children for busy work and have them 
work away quietly for ten minutes preparing a good des- 
cription of their picture. At the end of the ten minutes 
bring them up for a conversation lesson, and you will 
not require to do all the talking. Insist on full sen- 
tences and correct expression. 

In the change from script to print there is no occasion 
for great haste. 

A child may know printed words well enough to read 
a lesson silently, get the thought, and write the lesson in 
script on his slate, or tell it to you in his own words, and 
yet not be sufficiently at home with the print to be able 
to read the lesson orally, without hesitation. 

Before beginning oral reading of print, a child should 
be able to read a number of lessons with good expression 
when written in script on the blackboard. 

During the second half year the teacher will have 
more time to devote to oral reading of lessons. It 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 73 

would be better if the children could be supplied with 
script readers at first. Towards the end of the year the 
child's vocabulary will be sufficiently extended to admit 
of long stories for silent reading. This exercise will aid 
him materially both in thought getting and thought 
giving. 

On page 77 will be found a simple story of this des- 
cription. The teacher may compose a dozen such 
stories, write them on foolscap paper, and distribute 
them to a section for busy work previous to a 
language lesson, similar to the picture lesson just des- 
cribed. Such stories are not intended so much for oral 
reading as to impress upon the child the fact that he can 
gain thought through the medium of written characters. 
They also familiarize him with word forms and furnish 
him with ideas for his language lesson. 

For expressive reading there is nothing else so good at 
first as that which records the child's own actual obser- 
vations in a lesson on some object, e.g., a flower which he 
studies not for the purpose of reading, but for pleasure 
and information. (See page 68.) 

He should also be allowed to read from other easy 
readers. Of these there should be several sets of ten or 
more in each set. 

The pupil may begin early with such exercises as 
the following : 

Lesson 4. 

Purpose. — To teach expressive reading of short sen- 
tences, formed from words known by the child. 

Plan. — Have on the table a number of objects, the 
names of which have been learned by the children. 



74* FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

Drill the class on these words. Tell the children that 
you are going to talk to them with the chalk, and they 
may answer the questions you ask, or do anything the 
chalk tells them to do. 

Write such a question as — " Where is the cat, Arthur ?'* 
Then write Arthur's answer, " The cat is on the table," 
etc. " Put the cat in the box, James." " Put the rat in 
the box, Minnie." " Put the hat by the box, Robert," etc. 

Suggestions. 

The teacher should talk as little as possible during the 
lesson, and endeavor to impress the fact that writing gives 
us a new avenue for conveying thought. 

The benefit derived from such a lesson varies inversely 
in the ratio of the number of words spoken by the teacher 
to the number of words spoken by the class. 

Write a word with chalk on each of half a dozen 
slates. Give the slates to as many pupils. Let these 
stand on the platform facing the class and having the 
words exposed. Write a sentence on the board, and let 
one of the others arrange the six pupils in such a way 
that the story will be read from their slates. 

Sometimes let the children arrange themselves, or lex, 
one child arrange them, and the others tell his story. 

For review write a name on the board and have a 
child describe the object which it represents. 

Show a number of toys and have the children close 
their eyes while you take something away, let them open 
their eyes and write the name of the object you removed. 

Have the pupil glance over the whole sentence before 
attempting to read it. 



PRIMARY TEACHERS* MANUAL. 75 

Do not allow him to read the sentence one word at a 
time. By a rapid sweep of the pointer indicate that the 
sentence expresses the one thought. Do not accept rapid 
reading instead of expressive reading. 

Write a long story containing all the Nouns known by 
the children, such as, " I have a cup, and a fan, and a 
dog," etc. Do not allow the children to read this story 
orally but have them bring the articles named and place 
them in view of the class. 

Similarly develop a story from the objects by placing 
them in certain positions and have children write the 
stories on the board. 

Vary this to suit the size of the class, and the number 
of words learned. 

Do not allow them to begin to read a sentence until 
you think they are certain of every word in it. 

Lesson 5. 

Purpose. — To train the pupils to read short sentences 
composed in a science lesson. 

Plan. — The teacher holds a squirrel in her hand and 
the pupils observe and talk about its legs and feet. She 
develops among others such stories as the following 
which she writes on the board and the children then read : 

" Good morning, Mr. Squirrel." 

" Good morning, children." 

" I have short legs with white and brown fur on them. 
I can run fast. If I see a dog I can run up a tree. The 
dog cannot get me. See my claws," etc. 

Such lessons as the foregoing should be brief and may 
often be introduced as accessory to language lessons. By 



76 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

exercising a little forethought and care in asking ques- 
tions the teacher can develop sentences containing only 
nonphonic words already known and new phonic words 
involving sounds already learned. 

More expressive reading will be secured from sentences 
written in dialogue form. 

After tlie pupils have gained considerable strength in 
word recognition, cards may be distributed, upon which 
stories, similar to those on page 68, are written or printed. 

The story may be typewritten in clear type, with 
lines and words not too close together, and then pasted, 
on cardboard four inches square. 

While some are reading orally others may read silently 
and write their story in their own words, or draw a pic- 
ture to represent it. 

The science lessons may be arranged in such a sequence 
as to form correlative work for the phonic and reading 
lessoQS. (See pp. 68 and 69.) Other stories may be given. 

From Script to Print. 

Many teachers find the change so easy that the 
pupils scarcely realize that there is any difference at 
all in the forms. Others experience more difficulty, 
and to the latter the following suggestions may be of 
value. In no case, however, is the change very difficult 
and it is a mistake for a teacher or pupil to get the 
impression that he has a hard task before him. 

The teacher must first be sure that the child 
thoroughly knows the script form and can write it to 
dictation without hesitation. When he can do this the 
change is exceedingly easy to him. He may then be told 
that on the tablet and in the book the words are not 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 77 

written exactly the same as he has learned to write them, 
but that if he watches them closely he will soon learn 
to make them out just as quickly as when the chalk has 
said them„ 

Where the children have learned a number of phonic 
sounds the printed letter may be written in the phonic 
ladder alongside the script and the difference pointed 
out. The pupils may find all the letters on a certain 
page. 

Show the pupil the same word written in script and 
print and allow him to compare the forms ; then ask him to 
find the word on the tablet or in his book. The tablet 
is preferable for class work. 

Write a story in script on the blackboard and under 
each word write the print form similar to the mode 
pursued in interlinear translations. 

When the children have examined the story, erase the 
script and have them write the script story on their slates. 

Write a story in print on the board and give the chil- 
dren blocks with the script words on them, and let them 
arrange the story on their desks. 

They may translate script into print in the same way. 

Distribute books to a section at their seats and for busy 
work ask them to read a certain lesson with lips closed 
and then write it on their slates, or draw a picture illus- 
trating the story. When they come up to the class they 
may read the story in script, either from their slates or 
from the blackboard. They may also tell the story in 
their own words for language lessons, but it is not well 
at first to attempt the oral reading of the print. 

It is better not to allow them to print the letters at 
all. the results are always disastrous to the script writing. 



78 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

Story for Busy Work. 

Said Tom one day to May and Fan, " See the nuts on 
that big tree ! " 

" May, go and put on a hat and get one for Fan. Fan, 
will you get a big box for the nuts ? I shall get Dash 
and we will go off for them. E,un ! " 

May and Fan run and get them. 

" See, Tom," said May, " did not Fan get a big box ? '' 

" Yes, it is a big one. May. That is not a big one you 
have ; is it for nuts ? " 

" No, Tom, you will see." 

" Fan ! we are off," said Tom. 

" Dash ! Dash ! old boy ! " 

" Did he go, May ? " 

" Yes, he is off for that cat ; let him go ; you will see 
that he will get to the tree with you, Tom. Dash is the 
dog to run ! " 

Tom, May and Fan go on to the tree with no Dash. 
Tom is on the run, so that he can see Dash, and get him 
to go with them, for Dash is his pet dog. 

May and Fan do not run, so Tom and Dash get to the 
tree, and Tom has to put the nuts in an old pan, for Fan 
and May have the box. 

" See Fan ! " said May, " Tom and Dash are at the tree- 
we will run ! " 

" May, I cannot run, this box is so big." 

" Yes, so it is. Fan. Let me have it. I did not see 
Tom run off with my box. He is no man to let you have 
the big one to carry to the tree. We will not let him 
put his nuts in it, Fan," said she. 

" No, May, that will not do. You see, Tom is not a 
man, he is a boy, and he did not see that the box is so 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 79 

big for you and me. This is the tree. Let us put the 
box on that old log by it." 

May and Fan put the box on the log, and sit on one 
by it. Fan has her hat in her hand to get the nuts Tom 
may drop into it. 

Tom and Dash do not see them, so May and Fan get 
no nuts in the hat. 

" Tom ! Tom ! " said May, " we have got to the tree, 
but we see no nuts. Are the nuts on it ?" 

" 0, I did not see you," said Tom from the top of the 
tree. " No nuts, May ! see the lot we have, and see the 
nuts on the tree, up at the top ! I have had to put them 
in this old pan, I had not the box that Fan got for us, 
with me, I ran off for Dash and did not get it." 

" 0, we have it, Tom, can you not see it on the log ?" 
said May. 

" You have it !" said he. " Did you and Fan carry that 
big box up to this tree ? and you are so red and hot ! 
Do not get up for it Fan, Dash and I will go and get you 
and May a cup of sap and the nuts, so big I" said Tom, 
with his hand up. 

Tom and Dash go off. " May," said Fan, " Tom is a 
man, is he not ? see the big cup of sap he has for us, and 
the nuts ?" 

May and Fan sit on a log and sip the sap. 

" You may have the ten big nuts, Fan, I have a lot !" 

" Let us go at the nuts on the tree," said Tom, " I am 
off, are you, May and Fan ?" 

" Yes, Tom, and we will get the old pan." 

Tom has put the nuts from the pan into the big box, 
and is up the tree. 



80 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL, 

" Fan and I will put up the pan for you to drop the 
nuts into, Tom. We will let the nuts get to the top of 
the pan, and I will put them into the box." 

Fan, May and Tom go at the nuts and get a big lot. 

" Tom," said May, " You had my box, will you get it ?" 

" Yes, May, this is it." 

May put up the lid of the box, I had ham and a big 
bun in it. 

" ! !" said Tom, with a hop. " I will cut them for 
you, May f 

" 0, I can do it, said she. 

May cut them, and Fan, Tom and she sit on the log, 
and have a bit of bun and ham. 

" Is not this fun ?" said Tom. " Fan, may Dash have 
this bit of ham ? It is not big." 

" 0, yes, Tom, he may have it," and Dash has it. 

" You have a lot of nuts in that box, Tom, and I have 
my ten in my hand, too. Let us go," said Fan. " But, 
Tom, can you get on with the big box and that lot of nuts 
in it too ?" 

" I will see Fan," but he cannot do it. 

" Do you see that man's hut ? Let us run to it and see 
if we can get the man to let us have his nag." 

May and Fan see an old man by a log, he has an ax, 
but he is so old he cannot cut with it, and he is sad. 

" O, Tom," said Fan, " shall I give my ten big nuts to 
this old man, he is so sad ?" 

" Yes, Fan, put them in his hat." 

" You are a pet to do this for an old man," said he. 
"Are you, Fan ?" 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 81 

" Yes, and this is May and this is Tom," said she, '' and 
we have a big box of nuts, so big that we have to go to 
that man's for a nag to put the box on." 

" Do not go to him," said the old man, " my hut is not 
far oflf." 

Fan, May and Tom go with him to his hut, and see 
him get his nag and red gig. 

" May and Tom," said he, " you may have my nag for 
the nuts, but Fan let a sad old man have the nuts so she 
is to have the gig." 

" I have one by the hut, it will do for me. Tim, my 
boy, may go with you and see to my nag, but Fan is to 
have the gig." 

" Go, or the sun will set, and you far from the tree and 
the box of nuts." 

" 0, Fan !" said May and Tom, " see this red gig, and it 
is for you." 

Fan put her hand in the old man's. " 0, Sir !" said she, 
" I can not," but he led her to the gig. " Tom," said he, 
" put her and May in, and off with you." 

Tom did so, and got in with them. " Off we go," said 
Tom, " get up 1 old nag, get up ! see the old man at his 
hut. Fan, he is not sad, is he ? and O, Fan ! you have a 
gig and May and I have a big lot of nuts. Have we not 
had fun for one day ?" 



The reading of lessons in books may be taught as fol- 
lows: 

Purjyose. — To teach to read the following story : 
Frank and his sister Lily lived on a farm. They had 
cows, pigs, sheep, hens, and ducks. The ducks liked to 
swim about in the mill-pond. What a noise they made ! 



82 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

« 

Quack ! Quack ! Even Rover would run away as fast 
as he could. Lily called one little duck " Snowy." 
" You are a real swan, Snowy, I am sure," she often told 
her pet. So Snowy got the best crumbs every day. 
This made her very vain. '' I am too good for those 
ducks," she used to say to herself. "I will run away 
when my mother does not see me. I do not want to 
stay here. Away over on the other side of the pond 
there are tall reeds and rushes." Miss Snowy swam 
softly across and hid herself in the reeds. 

" O Frank ! " cried Lily when she came out, '' where is 
my Snowy ? I cannot find her." The other ducks did 
not know, and so poor Lily felt very sad about her lost 
pet. 

What about Snowy herself ? When it was quite dark 
she was cold and sleepy. A big water-rat came near her 
and she shook with fear. Then she swam home again. 
The next day when Lily came out, there was Snowy as 
hungry as a duck can be. '' O Snowy ! " cried the little 
girl, " where did you go ? "' Snowy did not say a word ; 
she only ate her crumbs, and said to herself that she 
would not run away again. 

Plan, — If the children have not previously read the 
story, ask them to read it with their lips closed. Tell 
them to raise hands when they come to a word that they 
do not know, and to show the word to you. Write all 
such unknown words on the blackboard. Develop the 
pronunciation and meaning of these words, and drill on 
them by having pupils find them on the printed page, 
etc. Discuss the picture if there is one in the book. 
Then proceed to the oral reading. Ask questions before 
and after the reading in order to lead the child to get 
the thought correctly, and to correct misconceptions : e.g., 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 83 

'^ What is this story about ? Whose duck was it ? 
What kind of home did Lily have? Kead the part that 
tells you that. Who in this class have lived in the coun- 
try ? Tell me a little about it. Read what is said about 
the ducks. What was the pet duck's name? Tell us 
what Lily used to say to the duck. What did Snowy 
say to herself ? Eead that part. How did Snowy feel 
when she said that ? You may try it again, and see if you 
can read it so that we would know that Snowy is proud 
and cross, etc. How was Snowy punished ? What was 
she punished for? 

Read from " when it was dark " to '* again." That is 
very well. What kind of duck do you think Snowy 
was ? Yes, a very foolish one indeed. But was it not 
partly Lily's fault ? " 

Suggestions. 

The accompanying lesson contains only the "dry 
bones " of a perfect reading lesson. The teacher s very 
countenance should be radiant with interest in the sub- 
ject, while each earnest effort should receive a sparkling 
recognition from her. 

She must feel a childlike enthusiasm, which is sure 
to be contagious, 

A child has a unit of energy to expend in a reading 
lesson. It is the business of the teacher to see that but 
a very small fraction of this unit is diverted into any 
other channel than that of expression. 

If half of the energy be expended in striving to 
decipher the half -learned words in the sentence and one- 
fourth in trying to keep the pupil's toes within a hair's 



84 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

breadth of a chalk line, or, worse still, in endeavoring to 
make no mistakes in reading so that he may keep his 
place in his class, the chances are that the other one- 
fourth will be expended in longing for the time for 
dismissal from prison to freedom and sunshine. 

Never allow a child to attempt to read a sentence 
without being sure that he knows every word in it. See 
that the child gets the thought of every sentence he reads. 

" Saying the words " is of little use. Never allow a 
primary class to read a sentence simultaneously, except 
in vocal exercises. They may occasionally read the les- 
son backward for word drill, although this is a danger- 
ous expedient. 

Do not let pupils speak out in the class, no matter how 
eager they are, unless you ask the whole class to answer. 

Propound the question before naming the pupil who is 
to answer. 

Insist upon good position in reading. Have the pupil 
stand on both feet, hold his book in one hand, and speak 
loud enough for all to hear. 

Do not allow the children to point to the words with 
the finger as they read. They should have had enough 
blackboard drill on sentences to teach them to glance 
forward constantly, the voice following the eye. 

Do not adhere rigidly to any system of class tactics. 
Vary, by allowing the children to stand in a promiscuous 
group, in a semicircle, or in two straight lines marked on 
the floor. 

In drilling on the different words, ask the children to 
find the word in their books as you point to it on the 
board. Or locate it thus, *' Who can tell me the second 
word in the second line ? " When the pupils come to 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 85 

anything in the lesson which is distinctly represented in 
the picture, have them find it. 

Talk about the characters in the story. 

Let the children personate the characters in the story, 
asking questions and receiving answers in the words of 
the book. 

If the child finds difficulty in reading from the hooh, 
write the story on the board in script, and after he has 
read it, return to the book. 

If a child does not keep the place have him look on 
the same book with you, and show you the place every 
few minutes. 

Whenever you can develop a sentence from the child 
do so, e.g., if a child has difficulty with such a sentence 
as " Tom has ten nuts in an old rag bag," reality will be 
imparted to it if the teacher shows the child a bag con- 
taining ten nuts and develops the sentence from him. 
This can be carried to an extreme, but the great majority 
of teachers err on the side of too little reality and too 
much abstraction. If the pupils thoroughly grasp the 
thought and have good training in vocal gymnastics 
there will be little need of teaching reading by imitation. 
The teaching of reading by imitation may however 
sometimes be used with beneficial results. 

The teacher must supply her own limitations to the 
statement that children should read naturally, e.g., a 
pupil when personating Shylock should try to feel and 
.speak for the moment as Shylock felt and spoke. 



86 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 



CHAPTER IV. 



NUMBER WORK. 

The great object to be attained in primary number 
teaching is to train the child to observe closely, and in 
due time to think logically, that he may gain knowledge 
and power which will enable him by -and- by to grapple 
with practical problems. Many of the failures in life are 
due to inability to sit down quietly and concentrate 
the mind upon a problem, weighing it carefully and ar- 
riving at a wise solution. 

A child who has studied numbers properly for several 
years has received a certain amount of information, it is 
true, but he has gained what will be of infinitely more 
value to him, viz., a habit of observing and thinking, and 
a power to investigate and deduce conclusions which will 
enable him in a very short time to acquire a thorough 
mastery of practical arithmetic. 

The amount of arithmetical knowledge really utilized 
in every -day life is comparatively small and could be 
thoroughly learned by such a pupil in one year of good, 
earnest work by studying one hour per day. 

A child who knows the perception of 2, 3 and 5, if 
given 5 blocks will discover for himself the fact that in 
5 blocks there arc 3 blocks and 2 blocks. 

It is better in the first year's number work to allow 
the child to discover everything for himself and to ex- 
press the facts objectively. 

Even in advanced forms there need be no hesitation in 
using objects in developing a fact. What student in 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 87 

Spherical Trigonometry has not been aided by making a 
solid triangle in order to have something tangible to help 
him to the truth ? 

In teaching such a principle as " carrying' in multipli- 
cation " the teacher should have the class discover the 
reason for the rule from objects, if necessary. It does 
not follow, however, that she should keep constantly 
drilling on the proof, and expect the pupils to give it at a 
moment's notice. 

The knowledge that we have investigated and proved 
a fact, makes that fact, even though we have forgotten 
the proof, more real to us than if we had simply accepted 
it at second hand, without investigation. 

The use of objects in discovery should be abandoned 
so soon as the pupil can make the abstraction without 
them. 

During the first year the pupil will be engaged upon 
fundamental principles in which there are no processes 
requiring extended reasoning. When he does face such 
questions he should in every case be led to develop the 
reason. It is possible in many subjects to carry develop- 
ment too far and waste time by 

*^ Dipping buckets into empty wells, 
And growing old in drawing nothing up '* 

but there is little danger of making this mistake in 
arithmetic. 

All primary arithmetic should be mental arithmetic. 

The object aimed at is not so much speed as investiga- 
tion and thought. The child will make a much better 
lightning calculator in after years for having at the 
beginning firmly fixed the processes in his mind. 



88 FIEST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

The distinction between primary and advanced num- 
ber work should constantly be borne in mind. 

The problem f X f can have no meaning to a young 
pupil. To him, multiplication is nothing but addition, 
where the groups are all the same size, and he does not 
understand what is meant by taking a group three- 
fourths o£ a time. 

But to the advanced student who has grown familiar 
with the convention which allows him to extend his 
definition of multiplication to include finding the product 
of several factors, all of which may be fractions, the 
problem presents no difficulty. 

This distinction becomes more marked as we approach 
and enter the region of pure mathematics. 

In the lessons on surroundings, natural science, etc., 
opportunities are presented by which, in many diflferent 
ways, the child incidentally enlarges his conception of 
number and learns by unconscious tuition. The utmost 
freedom is allowed him in measuring, counting, etc., and 
thus he gains a wide outlook over the field of number. 
Sucli number study should receive quite as much time 
and attention as the more conventional work. 

This general knowledge of the subject should, however, 
be supplemented by number lessons proper in which the 
child proceeds to classify his knowledge and carefully 
advances in regular sequence from the unit upward. 

Such lessons should be very brief, lasting from five to 
ten minutes, and may be taken with sections at first, and 
after a time with the whole class. 

On the time-table (page 24) one hour per day is devoted 
to number work, but the teacher will notice that during 
only two ten-minute periods, one in class and one at seat, 



PRIMARY TEACHERS* MANUAL. 89 

is number prominently emphasized, and, when number 
facts are carefully noted in the science lessons, this time 
can be considerably reduced. 

Whatever method is adopted it is better at first to 
confine the formal work to small numbers, and to have 
the pupil clearly understand each step taken, also to pro- 
ceed in such a way that each day's work will be a 
definite advance upon that of the preceding day. 

In the plan outlined in this chapter the pupil begins 
with the unit, proceeds to the number two and so on to 
ten, learning each number thoroughly before proceeding 
to the next. 

Starting out then with the intention of mastering each 
step in detail, we ask what must be learned before a 
number is thoroughly known ? 

We must know, — 

1st. The perception of the number as a whole. (Les*- 
son 7. Page 92.) 

2nd. Any two equal or unequal numbers to be found 
in the number. (Lesson 8.) 

8rd. Any two equal or unequal numbers which make 
the number. (Lesson 9.) 

4th. The equal numbers in the number. (Lesson 10.) 

5th. The equal numbers which make the number. 
(Lesson 11.) 

6th. The equal parts of the number. (Lesson 12.) 

By this method, in teaching a number, e. g., 6, all the 
additions, subtractions, multiplications and divisions 
which can be discovered by separating and uniting 6 
objects will be mastered before proceeding to a careful 
study of the number 7. The fractions J, J and J may 
be taken or reserved for a later period, Pupils do not 



90 FIRST YEAE AT SCHOOL. 

usually experience difficulty with them. Much practical 
information may be gained while dealing with these 
small numbers, e. g.y the number of days in a week, the 
number of pints in a quart, etc. 

As figures are almost indispensable in assigning busy 
work, it is well to teach them from the first, always en- 
deavoring to keep the number and not the figure before 
the mind. 

The teacher may begin the first day with the number 
" one," and then proceed with the number " two," and so 
on until she reaches the point where the known and 
unknown are mingled. This point will generally be 
found in the number " three." This review will be of 
service in grading the class into sections. 

The teacher who can teach one number thoroughly 
can teach any other number. On this account the num- 
ber 6 has been taken as an illustration, and from it the 
teacher may formulate her plan for other numbers. 

The meaning of the signs, as well as the «igns them- 
selves should be taught. The object in teaching the 
signs at first is to enable the teacher to assign busy 
work easily from the blackboard. It is well to teach 
the meaning of " equals " first, writing such an example 
as 2 and 1 = 3 and teaching the child to read it " two and 
one are three," or better still, allowing him to supply his 
own word. Perhaps he will prefer " make " to " are." 
(See page 105.) 

The words add, subtract, multiply and divide need not 
be taught during the first year. By a little careful 
supervision the child will make a correct inference in re- 
gard to the use of the sign, without having his mind 
burdened with the difficult phraseology. In teaching 



PRIMARY TEACHERS* MANUAL. 91 

the sign X , the teacher must decide at the beginning 
whether she will consider 3 x 4 to mean three multiplied 
by four, or three times four. The latter is preferable, 
the child being taught during the first half year to read 
the expression " three-fours ; " in the second half-year, 
" three times four " and afterwards " four multiplied by 
three." 

No lessons have been given on drill, as the teacher will 
be able to develop her own plan. The numeral frame 
may be used to advantage in drill work. In discovery 
it may prove a dangerous device, for the child may watch 
the teacher perform the operations and think that he has 
discovered, when he has done nothing but memorize. 

No definite limit can be set down as the amount which 
a child should go over in a certain time. The power to 
do work, and the knowledge of preceding work are tests 
of advancement. 

One new fact per day is sufficient at first. 

By the method proposed the pupil discovers each fact 
for himself, expresses it in various ways and learns it so 
thoroughly that he is able to give it without a moment's 
hesitation, the operation having been performed automati- 
cally. When the first ten numbers have been thus 
learned and the number 1 1 is presented to him he knows 
how to proceed, and if asked to do so, will discover all 
the facts in the number without the aid of a teacher. 
He can also express the facts in pictures and propose 
questions for solution. To acquire such knowledge and 
power may be considered a good year's work in definite 
number study. In his other studies he also gains an 
indefinite and unclassified knowledge of higher numbers. 

A lesson on the writing of a number of two digits is 
added. (See p. 107.) This work properly belongs to the 



92 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

second year, but it is inserted here because notation is 
of such great importance in after study. 

If a child has thoroughly learned the notation of a num- 
ber of three digits, the reason for carrying in addition, 
and the table of long measure, the operations performed 
in the solution of the following problems will be almost 
exactly similar to him : — 

h, t. u. yds. ft. in. 

12 8 12 8 

114 114 

113 113 



3 5 5 



In this way, after properly learning the simple rules, 
together with the tables of weights and measures, he can 
deduce all the compound rules without the slightest aid 
from the teacher. 

Lesson 7. — The Perception of a Number. 

Purpose. — To teach the perception of the number 6. 

(Children stand around a table having spools, slats, 
sticks, blocks, etc., on it.. 

Plan. — Give short, rapid drill on the perception of 3, 
4, and 5. 

Have children take five things and one more. " How 
many things have you now ? " 

If no one knows the name six, tell it. 

Have children take six things, and develop such stories 
as " I have six pens," " John has six blocks," etc. Have 
pupils bring you six things from a distance. 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 93 

Suggestions. 

Have knowledge of six £[.ained through different senses, 
e»g., let a pupil take six steps, close his eyes and touch 
six desks, tell you how often you ring a bell under a desk, 
etc. 

(The author once met a pupil who could fetch five 
things from another room, but who invariably said, when 
a bell was rung ^yq times, that it rang six times.) 

Test his memory of six. Develop such stories as " I 
saw six trees in the park this morning." 

Draw on the blackboard a number picture consisting 
of six stars arranged symmetrically and write the figure 
6 underneath. 

These number pictures should be symmetrically 
balanced. For instance in the arrangement just men- 
tioned the six stars should be so placed that if they were 
solid and were connected at the central point and then 
lifted from this point, they would all balance in a hori- 
zontal plane. This will be the case with six stars if they 
be arranged from the centre in the form of an equila- 
teral triangle, thus : 

If Tfi rlf 

Or in pentagonal form with one star in the centre, 
thus: 

♦ * * 

It is frequently advisable to allow the pupil to devote 
ten minutes to one such picture while at his seat. Adapt 
to slow and rapid workers by telling the pupils that 



94 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

those who get through first may draw a circle around 
each star, etc. 

The pupils will very soon be able to make good 
designs. These they may be allowed to elaborate, pre- 
serving balance throughout. (See page 139.) 

Busy Work. 

Hi. 

Copy the number picture from the board 6 times, 
also the figure 6. 

Draw 6 pictures of some definite object indicated by 
the teacher, e.g., the object learned in the last drawing 
lesson, six squares, six windows, six chairs, etc. 

Draw a picture containing 6 things, also indicated by 
the teacher, e.g., a picture of a flower having six petals. 

Copy the written word " six " from the blackboard. 

Copy six new words from the blackboard. 

Copy six stories from the blackboard. 

Construct the form of the figure 6 with pegs. 

Arrange pegs, cubes, cardboards, etc., in symmetrical 
groups of 6 each. 

Draw pictures of stories developed in the lesson, e.g., 
" I saw six boys coming to school this morning." 

Copy and solve on slate or paper problems written on 

the blackboard, e.g.y 

6-2 = 

3x2 = 

2+ =5 

-4=2 

6-1-2= 

Represent these problems by pictures, pegs, etc. 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 95 

Write from memory the figures and the perceptions of 
1,2,3,4,5. 

Write Problems and solve them, then represent them 
by objects or pictures. 

Draw pictures of any objects arranged to illustrate 
the fact learned, for instance : If perception of six has 
been the fact taught, the pupils may draw any picture 
of six, as six birds sitting on the branch of a tree ; six 
squirrels in the tree ; a house with six windows, etc. 

Write six words or six sounds known 

.Write words with six sounds, six stories, or stories 
with six words. Draw figure with six sides. Draw 
objects with six faces, as cubes, etc. 

Number Chart. 

Number charts for language and number work can oe 
constructed of stiff manilla paper. Probably the tint 
most suitable for the purpose is a cream yellow, the 
usual wrapping paper color. The sheets may be about 
24 X 18 inches in size and separately pasted at the top to 
pieces of black linen fastened to a roller in the way in 
which maps are made. 

The chart can be hung anywhere on the wall or over a 
chair, a cord being attached to the ends of the roller. 

One sheet may be reserved for each number, and when 
a drill is to be given on any one of these numbers the 
pr ceding sheets can be thrown back over the roller 
leaving the one desired uppermost, the linen allow- 
ing this to be easily done without danger of tearing the 
paper. 

On each sheet the perception, additions, subtractions 
multiplications, divisions and partitions in the number 
are illustrated in various ways ; the excellence of these 



96 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

will depend upon the originality of the teacher in 
devising positions and forms and upon the resources at 
her command. For example, suppose the number four 
is to be illustrated. A well-formed two-inch figure four, 
cut out of light colored Kindergarten folding paper, may 
be placed at the top equally distant from the two sides 
of the sheet, with a number picture composed of stars at 
the left, and another of geometric forms at the right top 
corner. Paste the pictures in their places. The pictures, 
stars, forms, etc., may be symmetrically grouped around 
a large central figure. 

For the number four a square centre piece, e.g., a pic- 
ture of four boys playing would be preferable to one of 
triangular or irregular shape, as it furnishes stories of 
four sides, four corners, etc. 

The pictures may be made of newspaper cuttings, 
colored cards, etc., contributed by the children. 

The stars, cubes, triangles, rings, circles and many 
other forms, the names of which the child knows, can be 
cut out of tinted paper and arranged so as to represent 
the several facts in the number. 

The teacher's quota to the fund may consist of water- 
color pictures illustrative of the science lessons. 

Lesson 8. — Subtraction, 

Any two equal or unequal numbers in a number. 

Purpose. — To teach that 6-2=4 

Plan. — Drill on the perception of 6. 

Ask pupils to take six things, and lay two of them on 
the table. '' How many have you in your hand now 1 " 

Give such problems as the following : — " If you have 
6 blocks of wood and 2 of them are burned up, how many 
blocks will you have left ? " 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 9f 

" Show me with your blocks." 

" Johnnie has six ducks and two of them are on tks 
pond. How many are not ?" 

Endeavor to get children to propose problems similar 
to the foregoing. 

" Who will tell me a story about 6 slate pencils and I^ 
slate pencils ? " 

Impress the fact of the lesson by developing anc 
memorizing the following : — " In 6 there are 2 and 4: 

Draw illustrative picture numbers thus : — ■ 
* * • * 6-2=4 



Busy Work. 

Take 6 splints, pegs, blocks, etc., and divide them into 
groups of 4 and 2. 

Pupils may draw a picture to represent a story whicb 
the teacher has written on the board, e.g. : 

" Tom had six rats in a box. Dash got two of them. 
How many ran off ? " 

Draw original pictures of 6 - 2=4. 
6-2= may be written alongside a number of prc^ 
blems previously known and children required to worj? 
them with their splints and pegs on the desks, also to 
copy them on slates and fill in answers, e.g. : 

6-2= 
3 + 1 = 
2+ =5 
6-2= 

These examples of busy work ma.y be modiSec? to ^iiif 
what has been taught in subtraction. 



1^ FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

Buppose the fact taught be 6 — 1 = 5. 

Dc:aw pictures illustrating such stories as : There 
were six pears on a tree ; one fell off, leaving five 
f.n the tree ; six birds in the tree, one flew away, leaving 
five, e^c. 

Suggestions, 

In learning the perception of a number it is better to 
proceea by the addition of one to the previous number, 
thus relating the new fact to those already known. 

In the investigation of the number itself it is a ques- 
tion which should be taught first — the additions or the 
subtractions. As a general rule children like to break 
dishes before they want to build houses, but not always. 
Some children instinctively divide their blocks into 
groups ana continue the process of analysis. Some at 
once take more blocks and continue to synthetize, while 
otners naturally inertwine the two steps, and by so 
doing cannot learn 4 + 2=6, without at the same time 
learning 6-2=4. If the two facts are not taught in the 
same lesson they should be related in review. 

The teacher will notice that she requires only six 
splints to teach the accompanying lesson. By this 
method the child will see that the subtrahend is always 
a part of the minuend. 

It will be necessary to explain to a class how to draw 
pictures representing problems such as 6 2=4 ; e.g.^ 
the teacher may draw (in addition to the number picture) 
a picture of a tree with four apples on it and two on the 
ground below. The child will find it hard to do this at 
first, but he soon becomes completely absorbed in the 
exercise. 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 99 

In such lessons it is well to give a number of problems, 
but not so many that the child will grow weary. A con- 
tinued story containing several problems is preferable to 
a number of diflPerent stories, e, g., I had six cents in my 
pocket, I went into a drug store and bought a two cent 
postage stamp. How many cents had I left ? The en- 
velope upon which I put the stamp was six inches long 
and two inches wide. How many more inches were there 
in the length than in the width of the envelope, etc. 

The child should be led to call up his previous ex- 
perience for he has often in the past observed the sub- 
traction of two things from six things, and after this 
lesson each observed case will strengthen his generalized 
fact. 

In a review with the whole class, one pupil may pro- 
pose a question for all the rest. 

In the class, one pupil may arrange his articles to 
illustrate a story, and another tell the story thus : " John 
had 6 leaves. He divided them into two piles, with 4 in 
one, and 2 in the other." 

Avoid such words as subtract, etc. Avoid the error of 
thinking that a child thoroughly knows a problem when 
he can write the answer. 

Do not attempt too much at one lesson. If the child 
never again makes a mistake in the fact that 6 — 2=4?. 
five minutes have been well spent. 

The other subtractions in 6 similar to the above are — 
In 6 there are 1 and 5 



« 6 


<c 


« 


8 


(I 


^ 


« 6 


ct 


ti 


4 


ft 


V. 



100 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

Lesson 9. — Addition. — Any two Equal or Unequal 
lumbers that Make a Number. 

PuTjpose. — To teach that 5 + 1=6. 

Plan. Drill on the perception of 6, 5 and 1. Have 
children take 5 things in one hand and one in the other. 

" Now put them all in one hand." " Tell me what you 
did." " How many have you altogether ?" Propose such 
problems as the following : — " If a hoy has 5 marbles 
and some one gives him one more, how many marbles 
will he have then ?" " Show me with your sticks." 

Endeavor to get the pupils to propose problems similar 
to the above. If necessary, aid by suggestion, thus : " Ask 
me a question about 5 apples and 1 apple." 

Develop the sentence — " Five and one make six " and 
drill on it. Draw number picture on the blackboard, 
thus — 

* * 
Suggestions. 

If 6 — 1=5 has been taught in the preceding lesson 
review and compare the facts at the conclusion of this 
lesson. Adapt busy work of preceding lesson." 

The other additions in 6, similar to the foregoing are — 
i and 5 make 6 

2 " 4 " 6 

3 " o " 6 

4 '' '^, '■ 6 

It might appenr thj^t in the additicns of 6 we should in- 
clude problems coDtdiniiig three addends, e.c/., 2 4-3-1- 1=6; 
but in learning 5 the chddren have learned 2 -(-3=5 and 
it is unnecessary to teach this fact a second time. 



PEIMARY TEACHERS' MANUAL. lOi 

Lesson 10. — Division. — The Equal Numbers in a 

Number. 

Purpose. — To teach that in 6 there are three 2's. 

Plan. — Drill on the perception of 2, 3 and 6. 

Ask pupils to take 6 things and do as you do, dividing 
•>ix blocks into three groups of two each. 

" How many groups ?" " How many in each group ?" 

Have children take 6 articles and find for themselves 
how many twos there are in six. 

Develop the story — " In six there are three twos.** 

" A boy bought six skates, how many pairs of skates 
did he buy ?" Give a number of such questions. Have 
the pupils propose questions similar to the preceding. 

Draw a picture on the board illustrating such a story 
as " there were 6 chickens, and they walked off two to- 
gether, so there were three groups of chickens." 

Draw number picture on the board to show that in 6 
there are three twos. 

The other divisions of 6 similar to the foregoing are : 
in 6 there are 6 ones. 
" 6 " '* 2 threes. 

Lesson 11, — Multiplication. — The Equal Numbers that 

make a Number. 

Purpose. — To teach that three 2's make 6. 

Plan. — Drill on previous numbers, also on the fact 
learned in previous lesson that " in 6 there are 3 twos." 

Have children take 2 splints together, 2 more together, 
and 2 more together. " How many splints in each group ?" 
" How many groups ?" How many altogether ?" De- 
velop from the class the story — '•' three twos make six." 

Have children show this with sticks, splints, etc. 



102 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

Give such problems as, " If there are two boys at each 
desk, how many boys will there be at three desks ?" 

" Three boys are looking at me, how many eyes are 
looking at me ?" 

Have class ask such questions as the above. 

" Show me on the board that three 2's make 6." 

The other multiplications in 6 similar to the foregoing 
lesson are : 

6 ones make 6. 

2 threes make six. 
After a few lessons combine multiplication and divi- 
sion, e. g.y for one lesson each 6-^-2 = 3, and 3x2 = 6. 

Lesson 12 — The Equal Parts of a N'i'.mher. 

Purpose. — To teach that | of 6 = 3. 

(The teacher may provide herself with an appie, a 
stick or a circular piece of paper cut in halves, besides 
splints, blocks, etc. 

Plan. — Hold up the apple before the class. " What is 
this ?" Break it into halves. Hold up a half apple. 
" What part of the apple is this ?" " How many of such 
pieces are there in a whole apple ?" " Why do you call 
this half an apple ?" Develop such an answer as — " I 
call it half an apple because you divided the apple into 
two parts, exactly the same size." 

" Take 6 splints." " How will you find out what J of 
6 is ? " " Divide six sticks into two piles exactly the 
same size, and find the number of sticks in one pile." 

■ Do this and tell me how many you find." 

• The iialf of 6 sticks is how many sticks ?" 

" Find how many pens in J of 6 pens." 

" Show me J of 6 blocks." " How many blocks ? ** 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 103 

" If I have six apples, and give you J of my apples, how 
many shall I give you ? " 

" Show me J of 6 blocks." " How many blocks ? " 

Lead pupils to propose such questions as the preceding. 

Develop the sentence, " one half of six is three." 

Write J of 6=3 on the board and drill. 

Have the pupils draw pictures on the board to illus- 
trate the fact taught. 

Suggestions. 

It is likely that in teaching 4, the term one-half will 
have been taught. If so drill on | of 4, and proceed at 
once with the discovery of J of 6 from the splints. 

If the pupils are not familiar with the word " half " it 
will be necessary to spend a full lesson on it, previous to 
such a lesson as the accompanying one. In that case it 
is well to begin with a straight line or string, proceed to 
strips of paper and plain figures on the board, then to 
regular solids, afterwards to numbers. 

A little child will often find the number in half a pile 
of sticks by making two piles, beginning by placing one 
stick in one pile and one in the other until his sticks are 
exhausted. In this way he can tell how many sticks 
there are in J of a pile containing 20 sticks, when he 
cannot count above ten. 

In teaching fractions, paper circles are good for illus- 
tration. Let the child measure the circumference with 
a string, and then measure half his string. 

The other partitions in 6 similar to the foregoing lesson 
are J of 6 is 2, and J of 6 is 1, These may be left until 
later. 



104 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

Review and more general Number Study, 

After the additions, subtractions, multiplications, 
divisions and partitions of the number have been learned, 
there should be constant review in order to ^x the facts 
in the mind. Rapid mental drill may be taken with the 
whole class. Special care should be exercised to make 
the seatwork during the period devoted to review as 
interesting as possible. A good device is to have the 
pupils play " keeping store," one pupil acting as sales- 
man and the others as buyers. A collection of ribbon, 
nuts, toy money, etc., can be easily procured for the pur- 
pose. In the Natural Science study every lesson presents 
opportunities for review and also for looking out into the 
region of number hitherto unknown to the children. 
They should count and measure the parts of objects 
studied, e.g. the number of the squirrel's teeth, and the 
length of the stem of the plant. In order that such work 
be satisfactorily performed, it will be necessary to give a 
preliminary training in measurement and measures. It 
is better to confine the study at first mainly to measures 
which come under the number ten. Measurement of 
distances makes a good starting point. A knowledge of 
the number of inches in a foot and feet in a yard, with 
fractions of these, is sufficient for the first year. Each 
child should have a foot ruler marked off into inches and 
fractions of an inch. He may measure ofi an inch on his 
slate, the blackboard, etc., cut off" pieces of paper an inch 
long, draw one inch squares and circles, etc. After pro- 
ceeding to the foot and yard he may make measurements 
in comparing objects in language lessons. The pint, 
quart, gallon, etc., may similarly be objectively dealt with. 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 105 

Lesson IS, — Tins and Minus, 

Pnr'pose. — To teach the sign +. 

Flan. — Write on the board such a problem as 1 2=3. 

Ask children to read it for you, and tell what is left 
out. 

Instead of writing " and " in our stories we can put in 
a mark like this -h, which always means ' and' 

" Who can tell me what this mark + means ? " " Tell 
me what it is like." 

" Make it for me with two splints." 

" Put the mark which means ' and ' in its place in this 
story 6 1=6.' 

" It looks like a little boy with his arms stretched out." 
" How many blocks has he in one hand ? " " How many 
in the other ? " " What is he going to do with his 
blocks ? " " When he puts them together how many 
blocks will there be together ? " " These two horizontal 
lines mean that he has put his arms together," etc. 

" We call this boy "plus" 

" What is his name ? " Make " plus " for me on the 
board. " Make him with your splints, and say the name 
as you make him." 

"Put ' plus ' in this story, 2 2=4, and read it." 

" Finish this story, 3 1=4, and read it." 

DriU carefully. 

Busy Work. 

Have children copy on slates a number of problems 
without the signs, fill in the proper signs and work with 
pegs, putting the answers opposite the problems. 

Let them copy problems, filling in the signs, but not 
working them with the pegs. 



106 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

Let them copy problems containing the signs + and — . 

Let them make the signs with their splints and pegs. 

Do not be satisfied when the child can read a problem 
putting in the signs. Be sure that he sees the force of 
the signs, by requiring him to work problems, which he 
makes himself, with his pegs, repeating to you each 
operation as he performs it. 

The primary teacher will find that devices similar to 
the one used in the accompanying lesson are exceedingly 
helpful, even though they may appear childish, and in 
many subjects, notably phonics, she will find them a 
happy variation from the hum-drum routine of every- day 
work. 

Lesson IJf,. — Figures. 

Purpose. — To fix the first nine digits in the mind and 
drill on previous number work. 

Plan. — Write a figure on the board. Ask the children 
to show you that many fingers, 

" Tell me something which has this many feet.'' Write 
the figure 4 on the board. 

'' Tell me a story about this." Write the figure 2 on 
the board. 

'' I am thinking of an animal and want you to guess 
its name. It has this many feet, this many ears, eyes," etc. 

Continue your explanation until the children guess 
a '' fox." 

Tell a story about a fox and some chickens. Have the 
children take " this many " sticks to make a henhouse, 
*' this many " pegs for hens to put in it, take away " this 
many " that the fox caught, etc. 

Continue the story in this way, until all the figures 
have been drilled on. 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 107 

Lesson IS, — Notation, 

Purpose. — To teach to write a number of two digits. 

Preparation. — The class should know the first ten 
numbers, and the perception of 11, 12 and 13. Have a 
small board which can be hung up and in which there 
are two hooks in a horizontal line two inches apart, also 
a number of small splints and rubber bands. 

Plan. — Have pupils take ten splints each and put an 
elastic band around them. Let them repeat this process 
until they can bunch into tens quickly. 

Have them put all their bunches back, and try to take 
ten in the quickest way they can. They will discover 
that the quickest way is to take a bunch. 

Develop that we call these bunches, tens. 

" Take two tens in your iett hand.' 

" Take three ones in your right hand." 

" Tell me what you have." " We always hold tens in 
our left hand, and ones in our right." " Put them all 
back." " Take one ten and four ones." " Tell me what 
you have." " Where do you hold tens ? " Drill. 

" Look at the board." *' Which hook is opposite your 
right hand ? " " We will call that the right hand hook." 
" Let me see which hook you think these two tens should 
hang on." 

" I have one ten ana two ones."' " You may hang 
them on the proper hooks," etc. 

"You know how to write numbers up to ten. We 
have a quick way of writing numbers greater than ten, 
by using just the same figures as before/' 

Make two marks on the blackboard similar to the 
relative position of the hooks. 

" Which is the right hand dot ?" 



108 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

" Under which dot do you think you will write your 
tens ? " " How many tens are there on the small board ? " 
" What shall I write under the left hand dot ? " 

"You may write it for me." "You may write the 
ones." 

Drill by repeating this a number of times until the 
children cnn transfer readily to the blackboard from the 
small board, writing figures for bunches. 

" Now we always write tens in this way." " If we 
have more than ten, we find out how many tens and how 
many ones we have, and write a figure on the right hand 
side for the ones, and on the left hand side for the tens." 

" W^rite one ten and two ones for me." 

(The preceding: lesson is only suggestive, and might 
better be taken in several lessons, as the subject is worthy 
of time.) 



PKIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 109 

CHAPTER VI. 
STUDY OP SURROUNDINGS. 

A half hour's walk with a wide-awake child will usually 
reveal the fact that little children have already acquired 
considerable knowledge concerning the external world, 
and that they avail themselves of every opportunity in 
season and out of season, to add to their existing fund 
of information. 

It would be difficult to find a boy of six years of age 

of whom it could truthfally be said that : — 

' ' A primrose by the river's brim — 
A yellow primrose is to him, 
And it is nothing more. " 

What child does not instinctively love nature, does not 
feel his little heart bound with delight under the influ- 
ence of the warm sunshine, the bright flowers and the 
singing birds ? With what eager interest he lingers on 
the first pages of nature's wonder book, a volume whose 
pretty pictures and charming stories never lose their fasci- 
nation unless by some unnatural influence from without. 
This love springs from the purest and most beautiful 
side of child-nature, it is a gleam from those " trailing 
clouds of glory " which float around the child's world of 
fancy, making it all rose-color and light and joy. 

It is the sacred duty of the teacher to foster this poetic 
and spiritual element in order that the characters of 
her children may be proof against the later contact 
with the prosaic world which so often tends to blunt and 
harden the finer parts of their nature. Perhaps the 
greatest charm in the Froebelian system lies in this, that 



110 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

it leads the child into closer communion with his 
surroundings and to a conception of law, thus teaching 
him in the highest sense to know and love not only " life 
and her children," but the " Giver of life." 

This interest too, if properly stimulated and directed, 
will be productive of untold pleasure to the children and 
will give them a bent for scientific study that will be 
invaluable in later years. 

It is not proposed as yet to attach the child to any 
inflexible course of study with the intention of giving 
much definite instruction, but rather to fan the flame of 
interest in the external and universal, to lead him to 
classify his previous knowledge and to guide him into a 
proper method of scientific investigation. It must always 
be remembered that these lessons are given principally 
for language training. See pages 19, 20, 37. 

The work can be taken in the afternoon, when it 
forms a helpful offset to the recoil which follows the 
more diflficult reading and number lessons of the morning. 

The child's previous knowledge has been acquired 
incidentally on the occasion of each experience and has 
not been, to any great extent, correlated. He now pro- 
ceeds to observe more closely and systematically, to 
exercise more fully the powers of comparison, abstraction, 
generalization, judgment and reason, and to arrange and 
classify his knowledge, giving a coherency to it all. In 
this unifying process he constantly sees evidences of 
design, and is led from nature up to nature's God. 

Knowledge begins in sense perception and is gained by 
attention to things, accompanied by a comparison and 
discrimination of resemblances and differences, the order 
being interest, attention, analysis, arrangement. ^ 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. Ill 

If the pupil is to be trained in observation, he must 
begin with things which he himself can examine. He is 
usually most interested in that which is near and partially 
known to him, but not always, for the distant star may 
have a deeper interest for him than the stone at his feet. 

Beginning then with the study of places and things 
coming under his own experience, viz., those environ- 
ments which he has influenced and which have influenced 
him, a few preliminary talks may be given on the 
following : 

{a) The school-room. (6) The school-ground, (c) The 
city. {d) All space with which the child is familiar, 
(e) Objects, natural and artificial. (/) Natural objects — 
living — animals, vegetables. {g) Natural objects — non- 
living — minerals, natural phenomena, (h) Animals — 
diflferent classes, (i) Fishes, {j) Insects, {k) Reptiles. 

After these simple introductory lessons more definite 
work may be attempted. 

Of the five hours per week devoted to "surroundings," 
one may be given to clay modeling, (see p. 132) one to 
lessons leading up to geography work, (see p. 125) and 
three to language lessons on objects. 

Language Lessons on Objects. 

Most of the teaching in a primary grade should be 
objective, e.g,., the child should be led to a knowledge of 
the fact that 2 and 4 make 6 by means of a number of 
objective illustrations, such as 2 leaves and 4 leaves make 
6 leaves. 

In an object lesson on the leaf, the leaf itself is studied 
as to parts, size, color, etc. Object teaching, which con- 
sists simply in giving a number of hard names and use- 



112 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

less details in connecfcion with an object without regard 
to expression or sequence, is of very little value. 

The child should have the object in his own hands and 
find out for himself and describe in good English every- 
thing which he can discover. He should then be led by 
proper questioning to find but what has escaped his 
observation, after which he should receive additional 
information in regard to the object from the teacher. 
The questions asked should stimulate thought and direct 
his investigation along the proper channel. 

Facts already known to every one, e.g., that a dog has 
four feet, if noticed at all, should simply be glanced at in 
passing. All irrelevant discussions should be discouraged. 

The questions should be definite and thoughtful. Such 
a question as " What is the shape of this petal ? " is a bet- 
ter one than " What do you see ? " 

Natural Science. 

The study of Natural Science is so entertaining and use- 
ful that it may be wise to confine the language lessons on 
obgects almost exclusively to such study of objects as will 
lead up to Zoology, Botany, etc. The subjects chosen 
should, as a rule, be native to tlie locality, and will be 
made more interesting if furnished by the children. By 
selecting subjects appropriate to the time of the year, 
etc., much labor may be saved, e.g., lessons • on flowers 
may be taken during warm weather, the children being 
encouraged to do some gardening on their own account. 

In all these lessons it is well to begin with the whole 
animal, plant or mineral, and proceed to the 'parts, avoid - 
inef many technical terms, and making generalizations 
from observed facts only. 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 113 

In the first year these lessons must be of the most 
simple character, nothing difficult should be attempted, 
although a few technical terms may be learned. The 
study of the animal kingdom is probably the most 
interesting to children. 

The teacher will find it an advantage to be a taxider- 
mist, able to prepare and mount her own specimens. 
This is not a difficult task. A teacher can, in a few 
weeks, acquire sufficient proficiency in the art to fill all 
the requirements of a primary grade. 

It is doubtful whether pupils should ever be asked to 
kill living creatures for the sake of observation. The 
killing instinct is usually quite strong enough in the 
average boy without further training Children should 
be taught that life, even of an insect, is a sacred thing 
and should not be destroyed save for good and sufficient 
reason. 

There can be no serious objection, however, to catch- 
ing and observing animals for a time with gentle care. (See 
p. 121.) By making judicious selections mainly from 
domestic animals and by devoting a proper time to botany, 
etc., the necessity for even this may be reduced to a mini- 
mum. 

One of the greatest aims is to furnish the child with 
a plan of investigation for himself, e.g., so that by study- 
ing one rodent thoroughly he may be able to study all 
others without a teacher. For this reason there should 
be a carefully chosen and logical sequence. 

The number of lessons which the teacher will devote 
to one subject, e.g., the squirrel, will depend on her 
power to keep up the interest. She may give at least 
ten consecutive lessons. In the first and last lessons it 
would be best to have a live squirrel in a ca^e, but the 



114 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

teacher will require to exercise a good deal of discretion 
here. If her discipline is weak, her class a mixed one of 
large and small pupils, or one with which she is not well 
acquainted, the experiment might prove most disastrous. 
It is possible to introduce a number of things into a cer- 
tain kind of school room which will lead children to run 
riot, forgetting the true ends of education. 

On the other hand, if she knows her room to be a 
home, as it ought to be, if every child is her friend, if all 
are fired with a common impulse to become wiser and 
better, if her work is one constant, glad, united search 
after truth, such a digression as the bringing in of a live 
squirrel will not create any uncalled-for merriment or 
excitement. 

In such a class the ten or fifteen minutes devoted to the 
first lesson will be spent in observing the little stranger 
and conversing about him, and at the termination of the 
lesson the children will feel a strong desire to know more 
about their visitor. 

In the second and succeeding lessons they should have 
stufied specimens and examine them, telling their dis- 
coveries. At the beginning of the second lesson they 
may discuss the general characteristics of the squirrel as 
in the preceding lesson, taking up the different kinds of 
squirrels. The children may then find and name the 
parts. 

Lessons on each of the latter should follow, and may be 
taken in this order : Body, head, legs, tail. In treating 
each part it is better to follow a definite plan, e.^., number 
of parts, name, form, size, color, use. 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 115 

Lesson 16. — The SquirreVs Head. 

Purpose. — To teach the size, form, color, uses, etc., of 
the squirrel's head. 

Call attention in a general way to the squirrel's head. 
Have the children first guess — then accurately measure 
— its length and width, and note its size in proportion to 
the rest of the body (about I). Develop from the class 
some idea of the form of the head ; they will probably 
tell you that it is shaped like an egg, and is, therefore, 
ovoidal. If they do not, question until they discover some 
likeness, or develop by a sketch on the blackboard. Have 
them show you where it is widest, where narrowest, and 
notice other peculiarities of the features — the depression 
below the eyes, the pointed lower part of the face, etc. 

" What other small animal has a head shaped almost 
exactly like the squirrel's ? " " Yes ; for the squirrel 
and the rat are distant cousins ; indeed some people say 
that those funny little squirrels, called chipmunks, are 
really striped rats." 

Ask the class how they would set about modeling the 
head, and what must be remembered about its size and 
shape ? " What is the head covered with ? Is the fur 
like that on the tail ? How does it feel to your hand ? 
I once knew a tame squirrel who was called 'Velvet 
Paw ' by its little mistress, his fur was so soft and silky." 
Note the color of the fur — lead pupils to see the delicate 
blending of the colors — where darkest and where shading 
off into paler tints. A lesson on water colors could well 
foUow, in which the child would reproduce what he has 
observed. An outline sketch of the head may be drawn 
on the board. 



116 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

Busy Work. 

Sj See p. ^4" 

Model squirrel's head in clay ? 

Draw the head from object or memory. 

Paint a picture of it in water colors, or draw it with 
colored crayons. 

Write stories containing words which were used in 
lesson and were written on the blackboard for phonic 
recognition. 

Copy from the blackboard the names of the parts 
of the squirrel's head. 

Sa 

Model, draw or paint a representation of any part 
of the squirrel previously studied. 
Write stories about the parts. 
Draw pictures illustrating these stories. 
Draw a picture of any object previously studied. 

s 

Read stories about the squirrel's head from black- 
board or books. 

Represent these stories by pictures. 

Draw forms representing the squirrel's head. Write 
stories about these forms. Read them aloud. 

Draw heads of other animals. Compare and contrast 
with head of squirrel, either orally or by means of written 
stories or pictures. 

Write or tell any story about the squirrel's head. 

The parts of the head — ears, eyes, nose, mouth, teeth, 
etc., may be similarly studied in succeeding lessons. 

These again may be more closely studied, e.g., as in the 
following lesson. 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 117 

Lesson 17. 

Purpose. — To teach the peculiarity of growth of the 
squirrel's teeth. 

Plan. — Show the class a number of squirrel's teeth ; 
also some nuts, and talk about them. 

Develop from the class that a squirrei lives on nuts, 
and first gnaws holes in them before he can eat them. 

Have a child take a tooth and try to make a hole in the 
nut by rubbing it, the other children observing closely ; 
but before beginning, have the child examine the tooth 
carefully. 

After this is done, develop from the class that the 
tooth is worn, and that if a squirrel made a great many 
holes in nuts, his teeth would be apt to wear out. 

" Do our finger nails wear out ? " 

"Why not?" 

" Who can tell me what would keep a squirrel's teeth 
from wearing out ? " 

" Yes, a squirrel's teeth grow like our finger nails." 

" What would happen the squirrel if his teeth did not 
grow?" 

" How kind God is to the little squirrel." 

" If I were to put a squirrel in a cage and feed him on 
porridge, what would happen to his teeth ? " 

" A man once did this, and the poor squirrel's teeth 
grew as long as your fingers ! " 

" Do your teeth grow in that way ? " 

At the conclusion of the series of lessons the live 
squirrel may again be brought before the class. He is 
now a well known friend. Before leaving the subject, 
the knowledge gained may be classified in a general way, 



118 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

and supplemented with such other information as may be 
helpful to the child. This additional knowledge may be 
given incidentally during the lessons. The teacher should 
have studied the subject thoroughly, so as to feel per- 
fectly at home with it, and know that she is competent 
to answer questions which will arise from time to time, 
but she must studiously resist the temptation to tell any- 
thing which the child can find out for himself. 

If the interest can be easily sustained there are many 
advantages in giving a series of say ten lessons on the 
first subject taken. The next animal can be dealt with 
in fewer lessons. 

The teacher should allow the children to lead her to 
a certain extent, but she should still supervise the investi- 
gation, stimulating them to observe, discover and tell. 

The lesson should not consist in a simple repetition of 
the child's previous knowledge. , The teacher should 
strive to have one investigation lead up to another ; thus 
when studying the legs of the squirrel she can easily lead 
the children to a consideration of its actions. The lessons 
may be varied by introducing stories about squirrels, each 
pupil contributing his quota to the general fund. 

Every such lesson should be succeeded by a drawing 
or painting lesson for busy work. The pupil should be 
given several preparatory lessons in mixing paints, etc. 
Forms should also be moulded in clay. After a lesson on 
the head of the squirrel, half-an-hour may be spent to 
good advantage in moulding a clay form of the head. 
(See p. 137.) 

Plants. 

The spring of the year is the most suitable time for 
the study of plants, for then the children have been 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 119 

eagerly awaiting the appearance of the first flower in the 
woods or along the mountain side, and are quick to bring 
to the teacher the delicate wild-flowers and pale-faced 
garden-blossoms which grow so abundantly everywhere. 
In plant study an abundance of specimens can be ob- 
tained, and this is an important consideration in all 
natural science work. In some schools better results will 
be accomplished by confining the first year's science study 
mainly to plants, and in such cases there is ample field 
for observation in every season, e.g., in the autumn leaves 
and fruit may be studied ; in the winter, house plants, etc. 

Nothing else will arouse a class to such a pitch of en- 
thusiasm in this work as flower culture in ihe school room. 
In addition to the potted plants which the children 
bring to the class, a long, deep box neatly painted or 
prettily decorated with pictures, may be kept on the 
window-sill. In the box the pupils can plant their seeds. 
The names of seeds and of pupils who planted them, as 
well as the dates of planting, first appearance, etc., may 
be kept on a pretty scroll on the blackboard. Such 
flowers as the morning-glory, scarlet -bean, sweet-pea, 
nasturtium, etc., are admirably adapted for such a garden, 
and may be trained to climb up the windows. The 
children take delight in watching their growth and unfold" 
ing, feeling that they have a personal interest in the work. 

The following plan of plant study for several months 
is suggested. The teacher will not find it difficult to 
adapt a sequence for the whole year suited to her special 
requirements. 

Before beginning lessons on a particular plant some 
preparation is necessary. Have the class bring various 
kinds of seeds — peas, oats, corn, flax, etc. These may be 



120 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

planted in a damp sponge or in a glass tumbler, over the 
top of which a piece of coarse netting is tied, allowing it 
to sag in the centre so as to be below the water. Fill 
the glass with water, and in the hollow of the netting 
drop the seeds. Place the sponge or glass in a sunny- 
window, where the pupils can observe it. This method 
is preferable to that of planting in the earth, for the 
children from actual observation are able to judge what 
is going on underground with similar seeds. In addition 
to this, hyacinths and other bulbs in glasses will afford 
great interest when their roots shoot out, and will do 
much to gratify the desire of the little people to see a 
seed grow. In a few daj^s the plants will be large enough 
for the purpose, and lessons may then be taken in the 
following order : (a) seeds, (6) roots, (c) stems, (d) leaves, 
(e) flowers, (/) fruits. 

In each of these lessons a plan of investigation may be 
followed similar to that suggested in the animal study, 
i.e., observing the sequence, name, number of parts, size, 
form, color and uses. Pupils may bring different kinds 
of roots, etc., for comparison. After these half-dozen 
lessons, which can generally be best taken in the month 
of April, the following may be taken, devoting at least 
two lessons to each : 

Snow drops, pussy willow, spring beauty, trillium, 
cherry blossom, tulip, apple blossom, buttercup, daffodil, 
syringa, daisy, geranium, forget-me-not, pansy. 

In studying a plant, e.g.y the pansy, one lesson may be 
devoted to the root, stem and leaves, and another to the 
flower. Pupils enjoy a careful investigation and a few 
technical names may be learned. It is well to have one 
new scientific term thoroughly learned at each lesson. 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 121 

Where there is danger of flower study becoming mono- 
tonous, the sequence may be varied by studying the 
shad, turtle, sponge, butterfly, frog, etc., in their proper 
seasons. Such specimens as the frog may be preserved 
alive for study, in glass globes with green window net- 
ting over the top to admit air. 

Let the greatest care be exercised to secure accuracy 
of observation, and precision in thought and in the use 
of language. (See p. 110.) The busy work to succeed 
plant lessons will be similar to that given for animal 
study, and will consist of clay modeling, drawing and 
painting, reading and composition. 

Appropriate songs will add greatly to the interest of 
the study. 

The following lessons are probably too long for single 
lessons. They are simply suggestive, and will, of course, 
require modification. 

Lesson 18. — Seeds, 

Plan. — Many other specimens in addition to those 
growing in glasses, will be required in order to show the 
various shapes and colors of seeds. If the larger kinds 
are soaked over night they can be examined by the 
children with a pin and the embryo plantlet can be 
plainly seen. Develop from the class the use and value 
of seeds, where deposited in different plants, and why. 

Have the class notice the different shapes of seeds. 
Many grasses, the pea, morning glory, etc., have round seeds 
of varying sizes ; some plants, e.g., the bean, have ovoidal 
shaped seeds, while those of others are flat and elliptical, 
as water-melon and pumpkin seeds. 



122 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

Notice the different colors, etc., of specimens at different 
periods, also the places where they were deposited in the 
plant. Have several specimens of fruit and of flowers 
in various stages of unfolding and decay for the purpose 
of examining their seeds. 

Some plants, like the dandelion and thistle, have little 
silken wings or plumes attached to their seeds. These 
are borne away and dropped by the wind. Others, e.g., 
the pansy, carry their seeds in small sacs which burst 
when ripe and scatter the seeds over the ground. 

In studying the growing seed, the proper time will be 
when the tiny white sprouts on either side are distinctly 
separate. Have class notice these carefully, the one yellow 
in color already throwing out slender roots, and the other 
of a pale green color, shooting upwards. Give names — 
the first part radicle or root, the second the plumule, 
Explain the importance of these parts. Prove by experi- 
ment, that if we reverse a germinating seed, placing it 
with the sprouting root upwards, the root and stem will 
turn into their proper position of their own accord ; such is 
their nature. If the little seed-leaves, or cotyledons have 
appeared, notice them, give their name and explain their 
peculiarity. They push themselves up from the plumule 
singly or alternately or in pairs, and the way in which 
these first leaves appear will be an index to the appear- 
ance of every future leaf and branch. 

Lesson 19. — Tlie Pansy. 

Materials. — Have the children bring several specimens 
showing flowers of varying colors and in different stages 
of unfolding. See that each child has a flower. It would 
also be better to have a pot of growing pansies. 



PRIMARY TEACHERS* MANUAL. 123 

Plan. — Develop or give name of flower. Develop that 
it is formed of several leaves. Give name of petals. 
Have class notice their number, form and relative size, 
their texture, lustre, the tiny hairs on petals, etc., and 
their color. Let the children notice especially the deli- 
cate shading and exquisite harmony of the colors. Name 
different kinds of pansies. Have class notice the centre 
of the flower — a triangular feathery ridge of 3^ellow and 
white, etc. 

Turn the flower over. Draw attention to the dull, 
almost uniform color of the back part of the petals. 

Observe the sepals, discuss name, number, size, shape 
and color, (five long, narrow green sepals). 

Next proceed to an investigation of the stalk — long, 
upright, tender, easily broken, having a peculiar taste 
like that of peppermint. Notice that the leaves on 
the stalk are as on the daisy. Develop that the pansy 
grows sideways on its stalk, pushed into this position 
by the small pointed sac on the underside, Ask for 
other flowers which resemble the pansy in this respect. 

Lesson 20. — The Pansy Bud. 

Plan. — Develop (having children examine the growing 
plant) that each bud has a separate stalk, coming straight 
up from the root. Pansies do not therefore blossom in 
clusters like the geranium, but rather like the daisy, vio- 
let, etc. 

" Let us look at these tiny buds. See how tightly 
they are wrapped up in the green leaves ! What do wi) 
call these leaves ? What will happen to these buds when 
the sun and water wake them up ? Are they always the 
same size ? " 



124 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. ^ 



" What would the young buds do if we did not water 
them ? What else do they require in addition to water ? 
Yes, and they are particular about the kind of sunshine 
they get. They like only the morning and evening sun- 
shine but the hot noon-day sun withers them up and 
they hang their pretty heads. When they first open or 
when freshly watered they hold their bright faces up to 
you, looking like a row of little soldiers." 

" Have pansies any fragrance ? What is it like ? 
Which will live longer in water, a bunch of pansies or a 
bunch of geraniums ? What does this show ? How long 
do the flowers live on the plant ? Look at these which 
are just beginning to fade— what do you notice about 
their color and brightness ? When the petals have 
withered and dropped off, what is left ? Let us examine 
this funny little green sac — open it — you see it is full of 
greenish-white seeds. How large are those seeds ? What 
are those little brown sacs hanging on the stocks of our 
plant ? When the seeds are ripe the sac withers and 
bursts, scattering the shining dark brown seeds upon 
the ground. The little sacs are really the fruit of the 
pansy plant, and are little houses in which the seeds 
grow and ripen sheltered from the weather." 

Cabinet. 

The following suggestions may be helpful in arranging 
a cabinet of curiosities and materials for busy work in a 
primary grade. 

The objects should be collected mainly from the imme- 
diate vicinity, and the children should be encouraged to 
help in furnishing them. 

They should possess additional interest to the children 
from having been studied in object and language lessons. 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 125 

Where the pupils are made to feel that the cabinet is 
really theirs, the visitor will be astonished to find with 
what interest and pride they show their collection and 
dilate on the peculiarities of the objects. 

The children should classify from the first, and should 
learn to recognize the objects, know their names, and a 
few facts concerning them. 

The cabinet may consist of five shelves arranged as 
follows : — 

Top Bhelf. — Animal kingdom : Insects mounted. Birds 
and mammals stufied. Other specimens preserved in 
alcohol, e.g., the frog in difierent stages. Animal pro- 
ducts. Glue, wool, silk, coral, shells, etc. 

Second Shelf. — Vegetable kingdom: Vegetable pro- 
ducts of the vicinity, grain, flowers, fruit, nuts, etc. 
Manufactured vegetable products : Linen, cotton, wicker 
v/ork, wooden objects, etc. 

Third Shelf. — Mineral kingdom : Stones and pebbles 
of the vicinity, iron, gold ore, flints, arrowheads, etc. 

Fourth Shelf. — Objects illustrative of form, measure- 
ments and color, manufactured by children when possible : 
First and second kindergarten gifts, clay forms, etc. 

Fifth Shelf. — Objects used in number work and read- 
ing, splints, script, etc. 

IGEOGRAPHY. 

What child does not take infinite pleasure in building 
his sand castles, or constructing his pebbly bridge out into 
the water, and then watching it slowlj" melt away under 
the influence of the incominoj waves. The sand structures 
he thus builds are pictures of nature, and his lively 
imagination readily supplies what is wanting in size and 



12(5 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

color. This natural tendency supplies the key by which 
the teacher may unlock the vast and wonderful store- 
house of geographical truth. 

The principal object in geographical study is to gain a 
perfect concept of the locality studied, and a knowledge 
of the forces acting upon it — a concept, which will adapt 
itself to the onward march of time, anticipating erosion 
and upheaval, the building of cities, and growth of nations, 
thus forming a dissolving view, ever changing and ever 
perfect. 

With this ultimate object in view the teacher will find 
it possible, by devoting one hour per week to this study, 
to do much preparatory work during the first year. 

A moulding-board, a number of small trays or pans, and 
a quantity of unused brass moulders' sand are necessary. 
The moulding-board or sand table may be about 30 
inches by 36 inches, having a 1 inch rim around all the sides. 
It may be painted a light green to represent the water, and 
should have some contrivance by which one end can be 
raised, in order that the sand map may be seen by the 
whole class. However, something that will answer the 
purpose can easily be improvised by the teacher. 

The principal use of the moulding-board is to afibrd 
the child an opportunity to express his concept. Each 
attempt strengthens his power to do this, and leads him to 
closer observation and study. 

There lingers yet enough of the symbolic in the child's 
mind to enable him thoroughly to enjoy this exercise, but 
care must be taken that he does not stick in the sand, and 
become a mere imitator. 

His best effort should be appreciated, no matter how 
imperfect it may be, and the utmost freedom may be 
allowed for representation. 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 127 

Aftor the first lesson the pupils may go in groups to 
the moulding-board, and for busy work mould a map, 
each doing his part of the work. (See p. 166.) 

In addition to the work in the school-room, short excur- 
sions may be taken by the teacher and pupils for the 
purpose of observing the locality. In the hands of the 
skilful teacher, if not carried to extremes, such a plan of 
nature study is quite as valuable as school -room work, 
and is much more attractive. In these the child may be 
led incidentally to a consideration of structure, and should 
be taught to draw his own conclusions in reference to the 
efiects of mountains, rivers, etc. 

The child beginning Geography does not desire to begin 

with the study of the universe as a whole, and proceed to its 

parts. He may not even wish to begin with the 

study of the whole space known by him. He likes to 

commence with the locality that he knows the most about. 

His concept of his own school-room probably contains 

more to him than his concept of any other locality of the 

same area. 

Plan of Work. 

After the preliminary conversations on school-room, 

etc., referred to on page 111, three or more introductory 

lessons may be given on 

1. Position of (a) objects on the desk, (6) objects in the 
room, (c) objects in the yard, {d) principal buildings in 
the city, (e) scenes of interest in the city, etc. 

2. Directions including cardinal points of the compass, 
also direction of different objects in the room, yard, city, 
etc., etc. 

3. Distance, including {a) table of long measure, (6) 
distance of objects in the room, play -ground, city, etc., (c) 
size of desk, room, yard, city, etc. 



128 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

Then proceed to a mere definite study of scliool-room, 
yard, etc. After thoroughly studying a locality, it may 
be moulded in sand. 

Children learn sand modeling very quickly, without 
any mechanical aid from the teacher. A few suggestions 
may be helpful, but as a rule, it is better to place the 
model before the child, and let him struggle into a know- 
ledge of how to mould it. 

Pour a heap of sand on a table, have the children stand 
around it, and each take a quart or more of sand. If 
each pupil has a sand tray so much the better. Place 
a book on the table, in view of the pupils, and ask them 
each to try to make a heap of sand, that v/ill look just 
like the book. Then have them try to make a sand book, 
of exactly the same shape as the book, but only half as 
large. Next, allow pupils to exercise their choice as to 
what they mould, e.g. a hand, a box, a hat, etc. They may 
then proceed to simple outlines, e.g. the track of a foot in 
the sand, the mark of a hand, the top of the desk, etc. 
To do this the sand is first levelled, and the outline made 
with a ruler or the hand. 

The pupil may then proceed to mould a map of the 

school-room, after having first studied it in a language 

lesson. 

Lesson ^1. 

Purpose. To model a sand map of the school-room. 

Plan. — Divide the sand evenly among the pupils. 
Have them level their sand with the hand or a ruler, 
leaving it an inch or two deep. The child has previously 
studied his room, but the necessary points should be 
reviewed. A few rapid questions will lead him on the 
right track, and he should then be allowed to work freely. 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 129 

" Which is the north end of the room ?" " Which 
will be the north side of your sand-room ?" " How many 
sides has our room ?" " Are they all the same length ?" 
" If not, tell me which are longer." 

Accurate measurements of the room may be made by 
the children, but in fixing on a scale for the plan, 
approximate measurements will suffice. Irregularities in 
the sides of the room may be noticed, with regard to their 
number, position and size, also the number, position and 
relative size of windows, doors, aisles, etc. 

The class may then commence work, each expressing 
his concept of the room in his own way. If incorrect 
models are made, question the child until he discovers 
his errors and have him correct them. 

When the ground plan is modeled, let the pupils add 
symbolic representations, e.g. pegs arranged in various 
ways for chairs, tables, desks, windows, doors, etc. Even 
toy furniture may be used ; anything which will help to 
make the sand-room life-like and pleasing to the child is 
of value. Let him use his taste and ingenuity in finish- 
ing his room. 

For review have the class model the plan without 
looking at the roon? 

After the sand modeling have pupils draw pictures on 
slate or paper. 

Where there is no sand-table the blackboard may 
be used, although it is wise to have the first idea of a map 
gained from a drawing in which the picture plane is 
parallel with the ground plane, and the north end of 
which actually points to the north. Relief can be 
beautifully indicated by ordinary white crayon on 
ordinary blackboard. 



130 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

Having continued this " circular " Geography as far as 
is deemed profitable, perhaps to the boundary of his own 
county, the pupil may at the beginning of the second 
year start upon the real study of Geography by a pre- 
paration for the study of the continent. 

The foregoing lessons may be occasionally varied by 
lessons on Natural phenomena, e.g. lightning, hail, dew, 
etc. These would be better taught as the occasion arises, 
that is, on a day in which the phenomena can be observed 
by the children. 

This definite formal work should, of course, be only 
supplementary to general information, extending over 
the universe of space, and gained incidentally in other 
lessons. 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL, 131 

CHAPTER VII. 

MANUAL TRAINING. 

The greatest objection that can be urged against 
primary teaching as presented in the preceding pages is 
that there is danger of the child being kept in a state of 
high nervous tension. 

The thoughtful teacher cannot fail to be impressed 
with the fact that as she approaches perfection in her 
methods of training and instruction, the child's heart 
beats more quickly and his eye receives an unwonted 
lustre, the whole system indicating that he is growing old 
too rapidly. High mental action is healthful, if not con- 
tinued too long, and instead of abandoning her methods 
it is better to remove the objection by adopting one of 
two expedients : 1st, Place the child on half time, train- 
ing him to work at high pressure while he works ; or, 
2nd, Devote the greater part of school hours to busy 
work, which is a mild and gentle play to the child, and 
to songs and calisthenic exercises suited to develop " a 
perfect physique." Where practicable, the latter is the 
better plan. 

Manual Training, which may be said to include all 
expression of mental concepts through the medium of the 
hand, is deservedly receiving increased attention in the 
schools, and it is now almost universally admitted that, 
in order to secure symmetrical development, such training 
must form an important element in all education. Draw- 
ing, Writing and Calisthenic exercises, when not carried 
to extremes, seldom meet with public disapproval Even 
sand and clay modeling, block building, paper folding. 



132 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

tablet laying and splint weaving, when conducted intelli- 
gently and in moderation, do not now awaken much 
adverse criticism in an ordinary school. Considerable 
caution should be exercised in introducing new methods, 
and care taken to see that whatever is introduced shall 
receive a fair trial. 

Form Study — Dra-sving, Modeling, etc. 
Every child loves to draw pictures, and no other exer- 
cise under the head of manual training is so universally 
admitted to be necessary in the public school. 

The drawing should be mainly from actual objects and 
the pupil, from the very beginning, should be allowed the 
utmost freedom in representation. It is better not to 
have much drawing from flat copies, although a study of 
good pictures will often aid the pupil. The object to be 
drawn should first be thoroughly studied as to form, size, 
and color, and may then be modeled in sand, clay, or 
putty. It may be reduced to the flat by cutting a similar 
form in paper, etc. By making the objects studied in 
natural science lessons the basis for drawing lessons, 
much time will be saved, and the exercise will form a 
valuable aid to the science work. 

When the pupil has thoroughly studied an object, e.g.y 
the squirrel's head, he is prepared to model it in clay. 
(See p. 137.) 

He may then proceed by pencil or brush to make a 
representation of it upon paper. 

He sees by a comparison of his representation with the 
object in what respects his original concept was faulty, 
and to what extent his muscles are unable to express his 
ideas in the concrete. Each successive investigation and 
effort increases knowledge and strength. With proper 



PKIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 133 

supervision, such drawing will be something more than 
the literal imitation of contour, etc. ; it will possess the 
elements of life. Train the child to draw fearlessly. 
There is usually too much erasing of lines and drawing 
with rulers. He should learn to draw rapidly with either 
hand on blackboard and on slate. It is well for him to learn 
that no product of honest effort should ever be ruthlessly 
destroyed. Even the sand map may remain for a fewhours. 

Accept the pupil's best work, no matter how grotesque 
it may appear. A successful teacher is always able to 
see some beauty is such products. 

It would be a good thing if slates could be entirelj- 
discarded in all primary work and paper substituted. 
Paper which answers the purpose admirably can be 
secured at a very low price. 

As in other subjects, this spontaneous and informal 
work should be supplemented but not superseded by a 
thorousfhly sequential course of form study, modeling 
and drawing along purely conventional lines. In the 
study of the forms of natural objects the child will note 
a resemblance in diversity and be led to a consideration 
of underlying common type forms. 

The formal work of the first half year may be based 
upon the sphere, cube and cylinder as type forms ; that 
of the second half year upon the hemisphere and the 
square and right angled triangular prisms obtained from 
the preceding solids by easy analysis. 

Materials. 

In order to secure the most satisfactory results, it is well 
to have the following materials for a class of 40 children : 

(a) A large wooden model of each of the foregoing 
type solids, from four to eight inches in diameter for the 



134 FIKST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

teacher's use. Twenty small wooden models of each type 
solid, one of two inches in diameter, for the children's use. 
(h) A large pasteboard tablet from each type solid for 
teacher, and forty small tablets for the children, each tablet 
being the size of a section of the corresponding solid in 
(a), e.g., the small circle will be one or two inches in 
diameter. 

(c) Sticks of various lengths for measuring and indica- 
ting boundaries of figures. 

(d) Fifteen lbs. potter's clay for moulding. 

(e) Forty clay moulding boards 12 in. long and 9 in. 
wide. 

(/) Ten paint boxes and tumblers. 

(g) Lead pencils and drawing paper. 

(h) Twelve pairs scissors, 

{i) Colored Kindergarten paper. 

Where it is impossible to get these supplies, much may 
be done in improvising materials. 

Glass or clay marbles answer the purpose for spheres, 
etc. Pupils can cut the tablets out of ordinary paste- 
board. Clay costs but four cents per pound. Slates 
may be used for moulding boards. 

It is important that the models be accurate, and that 
there be a suflSicient number to admit of at least one for 
every two children. 

Plan of Work. 

The models are first studied as wholes and then 
moulded in clay. In the study each form is compared 
with the previous one, e.g., the sphere will stand and 
roll, the cube will stand and slide, the cylinder will stand, 
roll and slide. Objects similar to them are also to be 



PKIISLIRY teachers' MANUAL. 135 

studied and modeled as a ball, a box, a rolling pin, a cup, 
a trunk, a trough. 

The details of the type solids are then to be studied, e.g., 
surfaces, round, plane, curved ; and the shapes of the faces 
shown in tablets and also in paper cutting. The shapes 
thus obtained may be used in various ways, folded or cut 
in paper to represent objects, arranged in borders, etc. 
Next proceed to a study of edges curved and straight 
and represent by sticks, strings, etc. At this stage the 
pupil may begin drawing lines with pencils in imitation 
of sticks, etc. Corners are next studied and the point 
developed. Thus the child is led gradually from the 
concrete to the abstract. The sharper the corner the 
hearer a geometrical point, the sharper the edge the 
nearer a correct line, the thinner the tablet the nearer a 
superficies. He may then retrace his steps and proceed 
to synthetize forming lines from points, angles and 
figures from lines, and solids from planes. The circles, 
squares and rectangles may be arranged symmetrically in 
forms of beauty and in borders. Objects similar to the 
sphere, cube and cylinder may be drawn from life. The 
second half year's work may be treated as the first. 

Lesson 22. — Drawing. 

Purpose. — To teach the circle and centre. 

(Be provided with sphere, cube, cylinder, hemisphere 
and a number of circular cardboards, having the position 
of the centre marked on each.) 

Plan.—'' Find me a cube ? " " What kind of surface 
has it ? " " How do you know it is a plane surface ? " 
Develop the answer — " I know it is a plane surface be- 
cause I can slide the cube and move my fingers along it." 



136 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

" Show me a curved surface that ends." " What does 
the curved surface on the hemisphere end in ? " Develop 
the answer — " It ends in a curved edge." " Show me 
another surface that ends in a curved edge." Have chil- 
dren point out plane surface of hemisphere, top of 
cylinder, and the cardboards. Give each child a card- 
board. Call attention to the mark in the middle of it, 
and develop that this is called the centre. 

"You may all take lead pencils and draw straight 
line from the centre to the edge." " Draw two more lines 
from the centre to the edge." " Measure the lines." 
Develop thafc all lines drawn from the centre to the edge 
are equal to one another. 

" What kind of edge has this cardboard ? " " If you 
draw a picture of a curved edge, what do you call it ? " 
" I want you to draw a picture of your cardboard." 
" How shall we begin ? " " Make a dot for the centre." 
" How far will your curved line be from this dot ? " 
" Measure and find out." " You may put some more dots 
for your curved line to pass through." " Draw your 
curved line." " Who can tell me the name of this picture 
of the cardboard ? " 

If the children do not know the name, tell them that 
it is called a circle. 

" What do you call this middle point ? " 

" What kind of line is this around the outside ? " 

" What do you know about the distance of this curved 
line from the centre ? '* 

Develop some such definition as the following: — ^A 
circle is a figure having a curved line around it, and every 
point in the curved line is the same distance from the 
centre. 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL, 137 

Busy Work, 

Have pupils cut circles of paper with scissors and 
paste them symmetrically on drawing paper, then draw 
the circle beneath. 

Let the children draw on their slates pictures of cir- 
cular objects, such as the face of a clock, target, plate, 
pipe hole, etc. 

Let them arrange their pegs as nearly in a circle as 
possible. 

Let them draw circles with squares as groundwork. 

If they have paints, let them paint circles of primary 
colors. 

Let them stand at the blackboard and draw large 
circles at arm's length rapidly with right and left hand. 

Suggestions. 

This lesson should be followed by a lesson on diameter. 

Do not let the children play with the cardboard. Have 
them think. 

Do not continue too long at one thing, but proceed 
rapidly from point to point, making the lesson as bright 
and lively as possible. 

Do not attempt to teach too much in one lesson. One- 
third of the accompanying lesson is a review. 

Drill a few moments on new facts when discovered. 

In busy work be satisfied with small beginnings, but 
insist on the pupil's best work. 

Clay Moulding. 

Clay can be secured from any potter. It may be used 
in moulding forms similar to objects taken up in natural 
science, e.g., birds, etc. (See page 115.) 



138 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

It may also be used in moulding forms taken up in 
object lessons, preliminary to drawing lessons. 

Fhe following sequence and hints may be helpful : — 

A Sphere may be moulded. By additions it may be 
transformed into a tea-kettle, apple, cherry basket, etc. 

A Hemisphere may be made by cutting the sphere into 
two equal parts. By additions it may be transformed 
into toad-stool, bowl, cap, etc. 

A Circle may be illustrated by taking a plane slice 
from hemisphere. It may be transformed into a watch 
and chain in a case or on a card. 

Original forms may be made from these three in com- 
bination. 

To Mould a Cylinder, — Make a sphere first, then 
lengthen it by relling on the board, and flatten the two 
opposite ends. Transform into a syrup pitcher, water 
cooler and bottle. 

A Cube may be made from a sphere by flattening six 
opposite sides, giving six square flat faces, eight right 
corners and twelve clearly defined edges. The cube may 
be transformed into a house, coffee-mill, and ink-bottle. 
For the roof of the house, cut a cube the same size, by a 
diagonal line through one of its square faces. Place this 
triangular prison on top of the cube. Ornament accord- 
ingly. 

A half cube may be made by cutting a cube perpen- 
dicularly by a line running from edge to edge. This may 
be transformed into bureau, washstand, table, chair, etc. 

A Square may be illustrated by cutting a thin slice 
from this half cube. This may be transformed into 
chess-board, school-bag, etc. 

The children may continue with inventions, singly or 
in combination, from these normal types. 



PRIMARY TEACHERS^ MANUAL. 139 

Kindergarten Forms. 

Kindergarten materials, where they can be procured 
by, the pupils, and where the teacher has devoted sufficient 
time and study to Kindergarten methods thoroughly to 
understand the objects and application of the materials 
used, can be utilized to good advantage in primary work, 
more particularly in form-study. Kindergarten forms 
are of three kinds, viz., forms of Life, Beauty, and 
Knowledge. 

Forms of Life are representation of objects with which 
the child is familiar in nature and in art, such as trees, 
birds, flowers, animals, etc., houses, furniture, monuments, 
archways, bridges, fences, etc. Forms of beauty are 
symmetrical forms made by working out from a given 
centre, always keeping opposites dike, as indicated on 
p. 93. See also pp. 

Good examples of such forms can be seen in an ordi- 
nary kaleidoscope. 

Forms of Knowledge are those constructed on a math- 
ematical basis, such as mathematical figures : e.g., the 
square, oblong, etc., also number-pictures, etc. (see p. 100). 

Materials. 

For the representation of these forms of Life, Beauty, 
and Knowledge many different kinds of materials can be 
used. It is necessary that each child should use the 
materials himself, and this will necessitate the securing 
of at least ten sets of all materials used. It is also well 
to have the material as large as practicable. 

The following materials may be advantageously used : 
I. Solids^ to illustrate three dimensions, such as, — 



140 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

a. Wooden blocks. The fifth kindergarten gift is 
probably the best. It consists of twentj-seven inch 
cubes. Twentj-one of them are solid, three are divided 
diagonally into halves, and three twice diagonally into 
quarters. Each pupil should have the complete gift. 
Where this cannot be obtained, cubes one inch square 
can be obtained in bulk at a comparatively sliglit cost. 
Each pupil should have twenty of these blocks. They 
form the best material for sense-presentation in number- 
study. 

h. Cardboard boxes, formed by the pupils to illustrate 
life-forms. 

c. Models in clay, similarly formed. 

d. Natural-science specimen twigs, etc. 

e. Type solids for conventional form -study (see p. 134). 
II. Thin, flat objects illustrating an approach from 

solids of three dimensions to surfaces of two dimensions, 
such as, — 

a. Pasteboard tablets. These can be bought very 
cheaply by the thousand, or can be cut out of ordinary 
pasteboard into the square, oblong, triangular, circular, 
and other forms derived from the solids studied. These 
are probably the most valuable materials for constructing 
forms of beauty. They can be made of different colors, 
and used in conventional and original color-study (see 
p. 152). 

5. Folding-paper. Colored Kindergarten paper cut in 
four-inch squares can be bought, or ordinary paper can 
cut up for use. These squares may be used for paper- 
cutting (see p. 148) and for paper-folding (see p. 146). 

c. l^atural-science specimens, such as leaves, etc., and 
representations of these in laminae of paper cut in shape 



PRIMARY teachers' MAKUAL. 



141 



of leaf, colored with colored pencil and arranged in 
beautiful forms. 

III. Long, thin objects illustrating the approach from 
the surface of two dimensions to the edge of one di- 
mension, such as, — 

a. Sticks. These can be bought or constructed in 
accurate lengths of one, two, three, or four inches. The 
largest size of shoemaker's pegs can be used. These 
materials are better when colored. Thej can be used in 
measurements and in construction of all representations 
where attentions should be drawn to the boundary of the 
figure. 

h. Straws, strips of paper, strings, etc. Kindergarten 
slats, both long and short, can be used for the same pur- 
pose. (See accompanying cuts.) 




lY. Short, thin objects illustrating the approach from 
the edge to the corner (and eventually the line to the 
point), such as seeds, pease, small pieces of paper, dots 



142 



FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 



on slate or blackboard, etc. Such materials are not as 
necessary as those of the three preceding groups, and can 
be easily dispensed with. 

Sequence. 

The first object of the use of such materials is to create 
interest by appealing to the natural impulses of self- 
activity, — play, expression, etc., — and by this means to 
arouse non-voluntary attention. This, however, is not the 
main object. There must be a growth from non-voluntary 
to voluntary attention. There must be not only the pres- 
entation of material for sensations, but also an orderly 
presentation. Furthermore, the mind must be led to act 
upon the sensations received and must form the habit 
of relating facts correctly. This will involve a certain 
amount of conventional work under the direct super- 
vision of the teacher. 

It is well to have a series commonly called a sequence 
of forms constructed, each growing out of the preceding, 
starting with the entire number of objects considered as 
a unity, -and by various changes coming back to the 
original form, such as the following. 

XT) 





In the accompanying cuts it will be seen that Form 2 



PEIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 



143 



is formed from Form 1 by a similar movement of each of 
four tablets. Forms 3, 4, 6, and 6 are similarly formed, 
each from the preceding, by a very simple movement. 






Form 1 can now be formed from Form 6. In the earlier 
stages use very easy sequences, such as the one just in- 
dicated. Move the first tablet and have the pupils do the 
same, or direct them to move it as you wish it moved. 
Then question until they discover what other tablets 
must be moved, and in what ways, in order to preserve 
the proper balance. When they have constructed the 
entire sequence and returned to the original form, have 
them construct the sequence from memory. The pupils 
may now suggest the first change in the next sequence, 



144 



FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 



and proceed to construct a sequence working from within 
outward. After a few preliminary lessons, pupils learn 
to invent sequences composed of many difficult and beau- 
tiful forms : e.g., with the fifth gift they can begin with 
the cube, then change to a schoolhouse, then to a church, 
etc., each form growing out of the preceding. In such 
exercises the pupil requires but little direction from the 
teacher. He is thoroughly interested, his self-activity 
is aroused ; he investigates, originates and builds. The 
analytic power of mind is active, and his concept con- 
stantly becomes more definite. The synthetic power at 
the same time works toward a unity seizing upon rela- 
tions. For variety the pupil may construct a sequence 
by adding new material from form to form, as in the 
accompanying stick-laying sequence. 



JL 




PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 



145 



delation to Other Stitdy. 

It is well to have the forms based upon lessons studied, 
thus being a spontaneous expression of the pupil's con- 
cept : e.g., the following forms in stick-laying might 
follow a lesson on snowflakes ; 




More Com/prehensive Relations, 

After the pupil has become somewhat familiar with 
such work as the preceding, he may be led to take great 



146 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

delight in and to receive much benefit from exercibes 
based upon a wider grouping, which may utilize all his 
materials and exercise his powers to the full. Take, for 
example, a story of the Easter-time, in which the child 
visits the country, is taken to the woods, and sees the 
wonderful process of the transformation of the sap of 
the maple into sugar. 

He may construct a sequence picturing forth the en- 
tire process in artistic forms of house, barn, sugar-camp, 
sap-trough, etc. Having constructed such sequence with 
blocks, he may proceed to model the forms in clay or 
cardboard, make a flat representation with sticks or 
tablets, draw pictures of his forms on slate, etc. 



Pa^er -folding. 

The child lays the sheet of paper straight before him 
on the desk. 

The teacher by a series of questions leads him to dis- 
cover properties of the square. Then by direction he is 
led to crease the paper in several directions, first diame- 
ters, then diagonals, always opening the sheet after each 
operation. A number of questions may here be asked 
as to forms obtained, sides, angles, etc.; then, by folding 
each of the four corners to the centre, an envelope is 
made. Place on desk so that back of envelope is upper- 
most, and we find by folding corners to centre again we 
have a smaller form having four squares on one side. 
On this form many changes can be made. Unfold this 
form to envelope- form. 

Unfold one of the four triangular pieces of envelope- 



PRIMARY TEACHERS^ MAiq'UAL. 147 

form. This triangle will be seen to contain a square at 
outer corner. Beverse diagonal crease of this square, be- 
ginning at oitter corner of triangle. Proceed similarly 
with other three triangles, working by opposites, being 
careful to see that the entire triiangle is turned down in 
each case. As a result you obtain what is commonly 
called the table-cloth ground form, having as its top the 
four inside squares of form obtained above by refolding 
envelope-form — that is, the diagonal of top will be part 
of first diagonal of the whole piece, and will be one half 
as long as first diagonal. 

Turn table-cloth form upside down, and press middle 
of edges to centre, the triangular corners standing up like 
the legs of an inverted table. Open each of these up- 
right triangular parts, and press outer corner down 
toward centre, as in the accompanying figure. 




The skilful teacher will be able to change to many 
other beautiful forms, each growing out of the preceding. 



148 



FIKST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 



Yery pretty mottoes for the schoolroom may be made 
by pasting such forms as the above on cardboard letters 
cut in proper shape. 

Two colors can be included by pasting two sheets to- 
gether before folding (see p. 20). 




PEIMARY TEACHERS^ MANUAL. 149 



Paj^er -cutting. 

The accompanying series of figures are intended to 
illustrate paper-cutting. Fig. 1 represents the original 
square of paper. Fig. 2 represents first fold across diag- 
onal. Fig. 3 represents second fold, which is a smaller 
triangle formed by folding triangle from right to 
left. Figs. 4 and 5 represent similar foldings, making 
triangle still smaller. Fig. 6 represents the line to be 
cut with scissors from apex to centre of base of 
triangle. 

Before cutting have child fold back one of the tri- 
angles, so as to have a form resembling a butterfly, as in 
Fig. 6. 

Figs. Y and 8 represent two arrangements of the mate- 
rial after cutting and pasting. 

The teacher may make a connected series of such cut- 
tings proceeding from vertical as in above, to complicated 




cuttings having vertical, horizontal, and slanting lines 
meeting in various points. The accompanying figure 
represents a form of this kind. 



150 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

Without illustrating further in detail, the following 
suggestions will enable teachers to extend the work de- 
scribed in the foregoing pages : 

The fifth Kindergarten gift can be utilized to good 
advantage in form study. (See Kindergarten Guide, 
Madam Kraus.) 

It consists of twenty-seven inch cubes ; twenty-one of 
them are solid, three are divided diagonally into halves, 
and three twice diagonally into quarters. 

These cubes form an almost endless variety of busy 
work in making forms of Beauty, Life, and Knowledge. 

The teacher may draw a picture of the required form 
on the blackboard and give each child in a section a box 
of cubes. 

After a little preliminary explanation the pupils will 
construct the forms without any assistance. They should 
be urged to invent and make new designs. The pictures 
may be left on the board. 

The use of the fifth gift may also be connected with 
interesting numerical lessons. 

Divide cube into three parts horizontally. Divide 
thirds into three parts, giving ninths. Divide ninths into 
three parts, giving twenty-sevenths. Recombine into 
ninths, then into thirds. 

Slats. 

The slats of the tenth Kindergarten gift may also be 
used. These are of wood, ten inches long and two 
fifths of an inch wide. They are used for interlacing 
into a great many forms. The child seldom tires of the 
beautiful figures created by his active fancy and dextrous 
fingers. 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 151 

Slats of an inferior quality may be secured in bundles 
of about three hundred, at ten cents per bundle. The 
best hardwood slats, in six different colors, cost about 
twenty-five cents per hundred. 

In assigning busy work with slats, have a number of 
forms drawn on the blackboard. It will be necessary 
to explain the method of making the combinations 
for a few times, then the child will discover for 
himself. 

Parquetry. 

Parquetry papers, gummed on one side and colored on 
the other, can be used to form mosaics or artistic forms 
mounted on sheets of cardboard. These papers consist of 
squares, right-angled triangles, scalene and isosceles tri- 
angles. Children can reproduce the forms of beauty in 
the fifth gift in this work, combining colors in harmony. 
By moistening the gummed side of the paper they adhere 
to the cardboard. 

This forms excellent busy work, but is somewhat ex- 
pensive. The papers can be got as Kindergarten sup- 
plies, boxes of 1,000 costing about forty cents. 

Colored paper may also be obtained in large sheets, and 
cut into the required form by the children. This is 
somewhat cheaper. This paper is not gummed, however, 
and mucilage must be used. 

Shoe-pegs. 

Common shoemaker's pegs of the largest size^ dyed 
various colors, can be used to advantage in form, expres- 
sion, and number work. 



152 i'lRST YEAR AT SCHOOL, 



Color. 

Apart from the culture of the aesthetic taste the im- 
portance of a knowledge of color in every day life ren- 
ders it necessary that the child should be trained in this 
department from the very first. 

In his science lessons the pupil by a study of the 
beautiful color effects to be observed in nature is led al- 
most imperceptibly from his first pleasure in glowing con- 
trasts to the deeper enjoyment of softer blendings. This 
educative process can be hastened by having the pupil 
match colored tablets both to dictation and spontaneously. 
This latter work will, however, require supervision, espec- 
ially at first, for it is probably unwise to allow pupils to 
form a habit of combining colors in hideous and inar- 
tistic arrangement. 

Colored pencils may be used during the first half year, 
and water color paints the second half. In using these 
each pupil has a box of paints and a small glass bottle 
with wide top for holding water, also a cloth for cleaning 
box and brushes. The boxes can be secured for about 
twenty -five cents each. The paints are prefei^ble to the 
pencils in results and very little children do excellent 
work with themr 

In ordinary schools it may be as well to confine the at- 
tention during the first school year to the observing, nam- 
ing, discriminating and arranging of different colors with- 
out attempting any study of the spectrum or mixing of 



PRDHARY TEACHERS* MANUAL. 153 

pigments. The teacher should, how-ever, endeavor to 
familiarize herself with the subject. 

The conventional work when attempted may be con- 
fined mainly to the primary and secondary colors. 

Teach one color at a time, and illustrate by numerous 
examples. The study possesses such an attraction for 
little people that it may be introduced for recreation. 

The first Kindergarten Gift, containing six woollen 
balls, representing the primary and secondary colors, 
costs about $1.00. 

Lesson 23. — Color. 

Purpose. — To teach secondary colors from primary, 
using colored crayon and 1st Kindergarten Gift. 

Plan. — Drill on the primary or standard colors — red, 
yellow and blue, previously learned. 

Hold up the red ball. Ask pupils to take a piece of 
crayon of the same color as the ball Have pupils make, 
near the upper left hand corner of their paper, a broad, 
vertical mark, about an inch long, with the red crayon. 

Similarly, taking yellow crayon, have them make a 
broad, horizontal mark, an inch long, from left to right, 
beginning at the top of the red line. 

At the place where the lines meet, mix the - two colors, 
applying a little of each. " Tell me a fruit that is the 
same color as the new color." 

" What is the name of this new color ? " 

" What two colors did you mix to get orange ? " 

Ask questions for drill such as, " If I look through a 
yellow glass at a red house, what color will the house 
seem to be ? " 

Suggestions. 

The teacher should supervise the mixing of the 
colors. 



154 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

Such lessons may be given in a full room by having 
one pupil come forward and draw the colored lines on 
the board. 

Have children bring orange colored objects. 

Have pupils note complementary colors. 

Writing. 

Writing, or " talking with the pencil," is, after gesture 
and spoken language, the next great means of thought 
expression. The sooner a child can write easily and well, 
the sooner he will have in his hands a means to express 
his own thoughts in an interesting and profitable way. 

A child trained from the first to the proper forms of 
the letters will not require to spend any time cor- 
recting and changing his writing when he reaches a 
higher grade. 

The materials for writing consist of script cardboard 
copy, pencil, and slate or paper. It is well to rule slates 
on one side at least. The ruling can be done with a 
common ruler and an old knife. Make the small letters 
one-fourth inch in height, and long letters (as " f ") 
three spaces high, i. e., five spaces long. Rule lines at 
the top and bottom of these long letters, but do not 
rule for two space letters (as " t "). Thus you will have 
a line one-half-inch from the top of the slate, a second 
line a quarter of an inch below the first, a third line 
one-half inch below the second, a fourth line one-quarter 
inch below the third, and so on. 

When available much better results will be obtained 
by writing on paper slips specially prepared for this 
purpose. 

These paper slips are ruled with red ink, and are 8 J 



PRIMARY TEACHERS* MANUAL. 155 

inches long by 3J inches wide, the ruling being similar 
to that of slates, thus : — 



These can be used on Friday to send home with 
sample of the children's writing of the words learned 
during tlie week. 

To obtain an approach to perfect handwriting from 
the little child requires constant watchfulness and labor. 
If possible, he should never be allowed to see an incorrect 
form. In order that this rule may be observed, 
the teacher must be able to present an almost perfect 
model of writing on the board. She must be able to write 
rapidly as well as correctly, and this requires long practice. 

The child should be given sufficient time to do his best 
work when writing, and then nothing but his best should 
be accepted. 



156 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

A firm, rigid drill, at first, on the proper position o£ 
body, arm, and hand, will tend to produce an easy and 
perfect writer afterwards. The child should sit squarely 
in front of the desk, the feet being placed flat on the floor. 

The forearm should be kept at right angles to the 
writing line and should form an angle of not less than 
90 degrees with the arm. The pen should be held loosely 
between the thumb and two first fingers, the pen-holder 
pointing over the shoulder. 

The whole arm movement should be used, exercises 
being conducted in it with pencils on slate or paper, in 
time to the tesicher's counting or to music. These exer- 
cises are more important than the formation of the 
letters. Daily practice in drawing horizontal lines, ovals, 
etc., rapidly, to gain freedom of execution, is absolutely 
necessary . 

Insist upon long pencils for writing, and do ypur best 
to encourage the whole arm movement and perfect posi- 
tion of the hand from the first. The end to be attained 
is certainly worthy of persistent eflbrt, and the results are 
often surprisingly satisfactory. Stencils will be found 
useful in showing the proper position of the hand in 
writing. 

Where children experience great difficulty in beginning 
with the whole word it is well to begin with the elemen- 
tary principles, which in all cases should go hand-in-hand 
with the other writing and should be taken up daily with 
the whole class. 

On the first day of school the children may begin by 
making the first principle or " one " on their slates. This 
furnishes profitable and entertaining busy work for the 
little folk before they can write anything, and also drills 
them on correct position. The pupils may be told that 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 157 

the marks are little boys running, and they are in such 
a hurry to get away that they all lean over. Such a 
device will interest the children, and they will work 
away happily. 

Proceed with the elements of the letters until all have 
been made. Then attempt a whole letter. The letter 
" i " is an easy one to start with. Practice this one letter 
until they can make it almost perfectly. Then take the 
next harder, and so on until all are finished. 

Search for little devices and suggestions to make the 
work bright, and you will soon have a class of excellent 
writers. 

In marking slates for writing, it is a good device to 
sketch with colored crayon a daisy, pansy, flag, or some- 
thing similar on those slates that deserve it ; or you may 
simply write the capital " R,," and for any remarkably 
neat slates, add "4- 1 as a reward." 

Songs and Calisthenics. 
In teaching a new song, lead the children to talk about 
the subject until they become thoroughly interested. 

Bead the first line and have them repeat it after you, 
and so on with the first stanza. It is as well to teach one 
stanza at a time. Teach the singing by singing the first 
line yourself alone, and then wdth the children accom- 
panying you. Be careful to check discord and insist 
upon pupils learning correctly what they attempt. Do 
not allow children to strain their voices. After they 
have learned the piece by heart and learned to sing it, 
teach the exercises, line by line. 

The work must be done almost entirely by imitation. 
There should be some kind of musical instrument in 
every primary class room. 



158 



FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 



In selecting songs, be careful that the song is not so 
childish as to appear silly to the pupils. 

The songs should also suit the time of year and day, 
e.g., children will not sing " It is lovely May " half as 
heartily in December as in May. 

Song. 

The following is a simple song, suitable for primary 
grades, combining, as it does, both exercise and singing : 




Here we stand, hand in hand, 

Ready for our exercise ; 
Heads upright, with delight 

Sparkling in our laughing eyes. 
CHORUS. — Singing cheerily, cheerily, cheerily, 

Clapping merrily, merrily, merrily, 
One, two, three, don't you see 

Where the children love to be ? 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 159 

The children stand in straight lines, holding each other's 
hands, with heads erect, and faces animated. 

In the chorus, when the word "clapping" is reached, 
they clap hands softly, four times, once on " clapping," 
and once on each " merrily." 

II. 

Right hand up, left hand up, 

Twirling see our fingers go ! 
Folded now, let us bow, 

Gently to each other, so ! 

Singing, etc. 

In the first line the children extend first the right, and 
then the left hand above the head, and in second line 
move the fingers rapidly, with arms still extended. In 
third line arms are folded, and in fourth, children bow to 
each other, at the word " so." 

III. 

Eastward point, westward point, 

Left hand nadir, zenith right, 
Forward fold, backward fold, 

Arms a-kimbo, chests upright. 

Singing, etc. 

In the first line the children point, with arm extended, 
in the directions indicated. In the second, the left hand 
points downward and the right upward. In the next 
the arms are folded in front, then behind, in the last line 
the hands are placed on the hips, the chest being active. 

IV. 

Upright stand, lungs expand, 
Backward make our snoulders go, 

Life and health, comfort, wealth. 
We cpji thus improve, you know. 
Singing, etc. 

6 



160 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

Children stand erect, heels together, chests active, and 
roll shoulders backward. 

V. 

Now we're done, with our fun, 

Let us to our work return, 
Doing right gives delight, 

So we will our lessons learn. 

The tonic sol-fa is just the thing for children a little 
older, but is not used very much during the first year. 

The singing of hymns in schools should not be accom- 
panied by Calisthenic exercises. 

Make the exercises attractive and give the commands 
in such a prompt, enthusiastic way, as to convince pupils 
that you like them yourself, know how to perform them, 
and intend that they shall, too. 

Exercises should combine health, recreation and cul- 
ture. The motions should be neither exclusively angles 
nor curves. They should prepare the pupil for gesture 
in reading, and for a graceful bearing on the street. 
They can be so chosen that there will be a sequence in 
the movements, and yet no monotony. 

The play impulse should be allowed free action. Teach 
the pupils healthful, suitable plays and see that they 
play without restraint. There is no better opportunity 
for child study and child growth than that afibrded on 
the " uncovered school room." 



» PiaMARY teachers' MANUAL. 161 

CHAPTER VIII. 
MORAL TRAINING. 

As the intellectual is superior to the physical, so is the 
moral more important than the intellectual, and the state- 
ment that " the highest object of all education is to gain 
power to help others " is in the ultimate analysis not far 
from the truth. 

The main objects of moral training are to awaken the 
moral sense, to create high moral ideas, to lead the child 
to an intelligent apprehension of his duties to himself, to 
others and to God, and finally to enlist his will on the 
side of right. 

" If a child knew himself thoroughly, he would from 
that knowledge be more likely to do what he ought." 
Within him are forces tending to drag him downward, 
and opposing forces tending upward. He is possessed of 
a power which enables him to concentrate his attention 
upon that motive, which lifts towards the highest ideal, 
until the motive becomes stronger than any other. In 
early child-life almost every act requires a conscious 
effort of the will. After a time the action becomes quite 
involuntary, and eventually, as the force of habit grows 
stronger, an effort is necessary to prevent the repetition 
of the act. " Perfection is attained not by a having and 
a resting, but by a growing and a becoming." One kindly 
act, consciously and voluntarily performed, has a greater 
effect in strengthening will-power than a large amount 
of unconscious goodness. 

It is difl&cult to determine exactly how much promi- 
nence should be given to definite ethical teaching in the 



162' FIRST TEAR AT SCHOOL- 

school-room. The results which usually follow lengthy 
dissertations on morals, seem to prove that preaching is 
not the teacher's forte. The most effectual work will be 
found to be accomplished rather by example than by pre- 
cept. Nevertheless, character building is never lost sight 
of by the judicious teacher. 

The last half hour of each day may with advantage be 
devoted to language lessons, selected mainly for moral 
training, although this object should seldom be promin- 
ently emphasized. In the primary grade the song impulse 
maybe utilized as a pleasing and effective method of uncon- 
sciously inculcating ethics. 

In addition to the foregoing exercises, there will inci- 
dentally arise many opportunities when pupils are plastic 
for the reception of moral truth, times when a simple 
word from the heart to the heart will leave an impress 
for all time. Many a child has been saved to a life of 
purity and usefulness by a single sentence spoken at the 
proper moment. But the greatest wisdom and tact are 
necessary for such occasions, and it is better to say no- 
thing at all than to run great risk of making a mistake. 
The wise teacher will wait until she is close enough to 
her pupils to hear their hearts beat, before attempting 
such work as this. 

The child's environments also exert a potent influence 
upon his morals, and care should be taken to see that he 
is not led into temptation, and that he is surrounded by 
such influences as shall tend to create in him a love for 
the good, the beautiful and the true. The countless 
charms, such as mottoes, pictures, etc., which can be 
introduced to beautify the room and render school life 
happy, may be so utilized as to serve a higher purpose 
than the mere giving of pleasure. 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 163 

Self. 

In order that the pupil may have a sound mind in a 
sound body, it is essential that he possess lofty ideals of 
physical as well as of moral perfection, and that he be 
sympathetically and at first informally led to a know- 
ledge of the marvellous structure and functions of his 
physical organism and of the laws of its development and 
preservation. 

One half hour language lesson, per week, may be pro- 
fitably devoted to such study and investigation. The 
teacher may begin with a general talk on the body, its 
parts, etc., with the object of interesting the pupil in the 
subject. The parts may then be taken in the following 
order : Head, trunk, upper extremities, lower extremities. 
Three or more lessons may be taken on each of these 
parts dwelling on : 

(a) The structure of the part, names of its parts, etc. 

(h) The functions of the part and of its parts. 

(c) The care of the part and of its parts. 

It is probably better not to spend much time on 
anatomy and physiology as such. • A closer study may be 
taken incidentally in natural science by way of com- 
parison. 

It is mainly in the lessons on hygiene that the moral 
element will be introduced, and the number of these 
lessons can be extended to include such subjects as the 
following : 

(a) Personal cleanliness, its necessity and results; 
washing hands and face, brushing hair, cleaning shoes, 
etc. (Soap, towel and brush are often convenient acces- 
sories to a primary school-room.) 



164j first year at school. 

(6) Neatness and as far as possible beauty in dress, 
harmony in color, etc. 

(c) Food, care of teeth, etc. 

(d) Sleep. 

(e) Exercise, how made helpful, how injurious. 

(f) Habits, good and bad, swearing, lying, punctuality, 
copying, etc. 

This self-study leads the pupil to a consideration of 

his rights and of the obligations which others owe to 

him, and from this he naturally proceeds to a study of 

the sayings and doings of others and of his duties to 

them. 

Others. 

The child comes to us when fancy is at its highest 
point. He creates his own little world, and lives in the 
future. No one can estimate the teacher's power to make 
this fanciful world a pure one, and in no better way can 
this be accomplished than by beautiful stories. Whether 
these be Bible stories or fairy tales, they should be care- 
fully chosen to suit the requirements of the pupil. 

There comes a time when the child no longer believes 
in Santa Glaus, but it does not follow that he is then 
ready for the study of the Calculus or the Categories. 

Again, the selections should be made from the best 
authors. In this way the child learns language by the 
correct method. He becomes saturated with good Eng- 
lish, and speaks it spontaneously. 

All children love to hear stories, and the teacher who 
knows how to tell a story well will foster a love for 
history in the young mind, which will make the subject 
as interesting as a fairy tale. By careful selections she 
will be able to impart considerable information, which 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 165 

can be classified in later years when the child enters 
upon the study of history proper. Indeed he should then 
find himself quite at home with such characters as Alfred, 
Watt and Howard. He may study a little local history 
in these language lessons. Most people like to talk about 
themselves and their relatives. The teacher must, of 
course, be cautious in dealing with the history of the 
pioneers of the vicinity, its progress, etc., but the good 
tactician will experience no diflficulty here. 

In these stories an endeavor should be made to impress 
upon the young mind the advantages of civil and religious 
liberty enjoyed by us, and to lead his mind back to the 
time when our forefathers suffered in order that we might 
inherit these blessings, thus preparing him for a philo- 
sophical study of history. The special advantage of such 
study is that in it the teacher has ample opportunity to 
exercise her highest power, that of " heart culture." It 
is not necessary to tack a moral to the end of a story in 
order to give a boy a higher conception of what is pure 
and noble. 

It is well to tell the story and have children reproduce 
it for you in their own words. The exercise may be 
varied with good effect by having the children tell the 
stories. 

Literary Game. 

Children should be taught to memorize selections of 
beautiful English. Youth is the most retentive period, 
and the gems of literature memorized will serve as a fund 
for after life. This consideration is one which is apt to 
be overlooked, especially by ardent admirers of objective 
methods. 

Friday afternoons may be devoted to recitations, 



166 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

dialogues, singing, etc., and the pupils should be assisted 
in making their selections. This is the time for the 
teacher to cultivate a love for a kind of literary entertain- 
ment, which, in some places, is unfortunately compelled 
to give place to that which presents the veriest trash. 

The small child naturally has as high an appreciation 
for choice literature suited to his age as he has for maudlin 
sentimentality and debased language, which deprave the 
taste and weaken the mind. In the hands of a good 
teacher he will enter heartily into the discussion of such 
gems as this by J. A. Garfield : — " Ideas are the warriors 
of the world." 

The following sequence is suggested as a basis for sub- 
jects for stories and gems, in addition to those under 
the heading of *' self." 

Deportment — Politeness to others, e. g., not to in- 
terrupt others, or pass in front of them ; conduct on the 
street and in the school-room, etc. 

Cultivation of such qualities as generosity, self-sacrifice, 
true courage, truthfulness, honesty, obedience, thought- 
fulness, modesty, kindness, charity, above all self-control. 

Co-operation. 

From the ethical standpoint the educational value of 
social work in which a number af pupils aid one another 
in the creation of one common product is very great. 
The pupil by performing such acts of helpfulness culti- 
vates a spirit of unselfishness and unconsciously gains 
information which will make him a better citizen in after 
life. 

The boy who does not care to play but who cheerfully 
takes part in a game which requires a certain number of 



MIMARY TEACHERS MANUAL. 16? 

players and which cannot be played unless he takes 
part, is growing stronger morally. 

The best expression will be given in reading and 
language when the pupil reads or tella his story, not 
simply because he has been asked to do so, but rather 
because he has a desire to impart pleasing information 
to the rest of the class. 

Original forms can be constructed by children at a 
table with colored tablets, each child forming his part, 
and pupils can mould in sand as indicated on page 127. 

These are but a few of the many ways in which pupils 
can be led to perceive the principle of vicariousness and 
the necessity for helping others. 

By such training the teacher will do much towards the 
ultimate practical solution of the most vexed and difficult 
problems of Political Economy. 



168 FIRST YEAR AT SCHOOL. 

Supplies. — The character of the work done in the 
schooh'oom is largely conditioned by the qnality and 
quantity of the materials furnished. The following list 
(which is only suggestive) indicates materials which can 
be utilized in a primary classroom of forty pupils. In 
the case of permanent materials e.g., '' cubes," the 
amount named is what might be required at the begin- 
ning. In other cases, e.g., " drawing-paper," the amount 
named is supposed to be sufficient for one year. 

Materials for cabinet (see p. 125). 

40 First Keading-books, all of the same kind, for se- 
quential work in class. 

4 sets First Readers, 12 in each set, from 4 different 
series, for supplementary reading; also books containing 
easy stories. 

Reading, phonic, and language-lesson charts. 

80 lead pencils. 

3000 foolscap slips (see p. 155). 

40 slates. 40 slate pencils. 40 rulers. 

Scribbling-paper, cut 4 inches by 6 inches. 

1000 one-inch cubes. 2 quarts large shoe-pegs. 

3 bunches long slats (see p. 150). 

3 bunches short slats. 1 moulding-board (see p. 126). 

20 tin trays for moulding. 3 gallons sand. 

3000 sheets drawing-paper, cut 6 inches b}^ 8 inches. 

Drawing-materials (see p. 134). 

1 box colored crayon. 5 boxes white crayon. 

6 blackboard brushes. 

Reference-books for teachers' use. 



PRIMARY teachers' MANUAL. 169 



BOOKS FOR PRIMARY TEACHERS. 

The Primary Teacher in preparing lessons, constantly 
requires books of reference, and should have a well- 
stored library. 

The following list is submitted as a help in making- 
selections : — 

Applied Psychology, McLellan ; Arithmetic, Wentworth and 
Reed ; Arithmetic, Appleton ; Arithmetic Industrial, Baldwin ; Art 
of School Management, Baldwin ; Art of Securing Attention, 
Hughes ; Child and Nature, Frye ; Development Lessons, DeGraff ; 
Early Child Culture, Hailmann ; Education by Doing, Anna Jonson; 
Education, Fitch ; Education of Man, Froebel ; Elocution, Mrs. 
Shoemaker ; First Three Years of Child Life, Perez ; Fitch on 
Teaching ; From Cradle to School, Meyer ; Kindergarten Guide, 
Madame Krauss ; Kindergarten Songs, Mrs. Hubbard ; Kinder- 
garten Songs, Mrs. Hughes ; Language Lessons, R. K. Row ; 
Lectures on Education, Jos. Payne ; Leonard and Gertrude Pesta- 
lozzi ; Object Lessons, Calkin ; Object Lessons, Sheldon ; Physical 
Culture, Houghton ; Practical Teacher, Parker ; Principles and 
Practice of Teaching, Johonnot ; Quincy Methods, Patridge ; 
Synthetic Method, Pollard ; Unconscious Tuition, Huntington ; 
Hans Anderson's Fairy Tales ; Claws and Hoofs ; Wings 
and Fins ; Stories about Cats, Mrs. Surr ; Fairyland of Science, 
Arabella Buckley ; Life and her Children ; Natural History for 
Little Folks' Series, Bees, Butterflies, etc. , Mrs. Sanborn Temay ; 
Greek Heroes, Charles Kingsley ; Water Babies ; Madame What 
and Lady Why ; Seven Little Sisters, Jane Andrews ; Ten Boys on 
the Road from Long Ago to Now ; Little Lord Fauntleroy, Frances 
Hodgson Burnet ; Hawthorne's Wonder Book ; Little Friends in 
Feaithera and Fur, Johonnot* 



The Best Educational Periodicals. 



The School Journal 

is published weekly at $2.50 a year and is in its 23rd year. 

It is the oldest, best known and widest circulated educational 
weekly in the U. S. The Journal is filled with ideas that will 
surely advance the teachers' conception of education. The best 
brain work on the work of professional teaching is found in it 
— not theoretical essays, nor pieces scissored out of other 
journals — The School Journal has its own special writers — 
the ablest in the world. 

The Primary School 

is published monthly from September to June at $1.00 a year. 
It is the ideal paper for primary teachers, being devoted almost 
exclusively to original primary methods and devices. Several 
entirely new features this year of great value. 

The Teachers' Institute 

is published monthly, at $1.00 a year. It is edited in the same 
spirit and from the same standpoint as The Journal, and has 
ever since it was started in 1S7S been the r?20si pc-pulor educa- 
tional monthly published, circulating in ever) state. Every line 
is to the point. It is finely printed and crowded with illustra- 
tions made specially for it. Every study taught by the teacher 
is covered in each issue. 

EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS. 

This is not a paper, but a series of small monthly volumes 
that bear on Professional Teaching. It is useful for those who 
vrant to study the foundations of education ; for Normal Schools, 
Training Classes, Teachers* Institutes and individual teachers. 
If you desire to teach protessionally you will want it. Hand- 
some paper covers, 64pp. each month. The Histon,-, Science, 
Methods, and Civics of education are discussed each month, 
and it also contains all of the N. Y, State Examination Ques- 
tions and Answers. 

OUR TIMES 

gives a resume of the important news of the month— not the 
murders, the scandals, etc., but the news that bears upon the 
progress of the world and specially written for the school-room. 
It is the brightest and best edited paper of current events pub- 
lished, and so cheap that it can be afforded by every pupil. 
Club rates, 25 cents. 

%* Select the paper suited to your needs and send for a fret sample. 
Sa*nples of all the papers 25 cents, 

E. L. KELLOGG & CO., New York and Chicago. 



Best Books for Teachers, 

Classified List under Subjects. 

To aid teachers to procure the books best suited to their purpose, we 
give below a list of our publications classified under subjects. The division 
Is sometimes a diflBcult one to make, so that we have in many cases placed 
the same book uuder several titles; for instance, Currie's Early Education 
appears under Principles and "Practice of Education, and also 
Primary Education. Recent books are starred, thus * 

HISTORY OF EDUCATION, GREAT EDU- Our By 
nATA-DQ wn Retail. Price to Mail 
l/Ai.UJt.9, JLXKf. Teachers Extra 

Allen's Historic Outlines ot Education, - - paper .15 pd. 

Autobiography of Froebel, cl. .50 .40 .05 

Browning's Aspects of Education Best edition. cloth .25 .20 .03 

" Educational Theories. Best edition. cl. .50 .40 ,05 

♦Educational Foundations, bound vol. '91-'93, paper .60 pd. 

♦ " " " '93-'93, cl. 1.00 pd. 
Kellogg's Life of Pestalozzl, _ _ _ _ paper .15 pd. 
Lang's Comenius, ______ paper .15 pd. 

" Basedow, --_____ paper .15 pd. 

♦ " Rousseau and his "Emile" _ _ _ paper .15 pd. 

♦ " Horace Mann, ----__ paper .15 pd. 

♦ " Great Teachers of Four Centuries, - cl. .25 .30 .03 

♦ " Herbart and His Outlines of the Science 

of Education. - _ - _ _ cl. .25 .30 .03 

Phelps' Life of Da^nd P, Page, - - - - paper .15 pd. 

Quick's Educational Reformers, Best edition. - cl. 1.00 .80 .08 

♦Reinhart's History of Education, - - - cl. .25 .30 .03 

PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION. 

Carter's Artificial Stupidity in School, - - paper .15 pd. 

♦Educational Foun dations, bound vol. '91-'92, paper .60 pd. 

♦ '' " " '92-'93, cl. 1.00 pd. 
Fitch's Improvement in Teaching, - _ - paper .15 pd. 
♦HaU (G. S.) Contents of Children's Minds, - cl. .25 .30 .03 
Huntington's Unconscious Tuition, - _ _ paper .15 pd. 
Payne's Lectures on Science and Art of Education, cl. LOO .80 .08 
Reinhart's Principles of Education, _ _ _ cl. .25 .30 .03 
♦Spencer's Education. Best edition. - - - cl. 1.00 .80 .10 
Perez's First Three Years of Childhood, - - cl. 1.50 1.30 .10 
♦Rein's Outlines of Pedagogics, _ _ _ cl. .75 .60 .08 
Tate's Philosophy of Education. Best edition. - cl. 1.50 1.80 .10 
♦Teachers' Manual Series, 2i nos. ready, each, paper .15 pd. 

PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. 

Allen's Mind Studies for Young Teachers, - cl. .50 .40 .05 

Allen's Temperament in Education, _ _ _ cl. .50 .40 .05 

♦Kellogg's Outlines of Psychology, - - - paper .25 .30 03. 

Perez's First Three Years of Childhood. Best edition, cl. 1.50 1.30 .10 

Rooper's Apperception, Best edition. - - cl. .25 .30 .03 

Welch's Teachers' Psychology, - - - - cl. 1.25 1.00 .10 

" Talks on Psychoiogyi - - - - cl. .60 .40 .05 



GENERAL METHODS AND SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 



Ourrie's Early Education, ----- cl. 

Fitca's Art of Questioning, ----- paper 

" Art of Securing Attention - - _ paper 

" Lectures on Teaching, - - .. - cl. 

Gladstone's Object Teaching, _ _ _ _ paper 

Hughes' Mistakes in Teaching. Best edition. - cl. 

" Securing and Ketaining Attention, Best ed. cl. 

" How to Keep Order. _ _ _ _ paper 

Kellogg's School Management. - - - - cl. 

McMurry's How to Conduct the Recitation, - paper 

♦Parker's Talks on Pedagogics. cl. 

" Talks on Teaching, _ _ _ _ cl. 

" Practical Teacher, ----- cl. 

♦Page's Theory and Practice of Teaching, - cl. 

Patridge's Quincy Methods, illustrated, - - cl. 

Quick's How to Train the Memory, > - - - paper 

♦Rein's Pedagogics, ------ cl. 

♦Keinhart's Principles of Education, - - cl. 

♦ " Civics in Education, - - - - cl. 

^Rooper's Object Teaching, _ _ _ _ cl. 

Sidgwick's Stimulus in School, - - - - paper 

Shaw and Donneli's School Devices, - - - cl. 

Southwick's Quiz Manual of Teaching, - - cl. 

Yonge's Practical Work in School, - - - paper 

METHODS IN SPECIIL SUBJECTS. 



1.35 



1.35 

.50 
.50 



1.50 
1.25 
1.50 
.80 
1.75 

.75 
.25 
.25 
.25 

1.25 

.75 



Augsburg's Easy Drawings for Geog. Class, 

" Easy Things to Draw, 

♦Bnrnz Step by Step Primer, _ _ _ _ 
Calkins' How to Teach Phonics, _ - - 

Dewey's How to Teach Manners, _ - _ 
Gladstone's Object Teaching, - - _ - 
Hughes' How to Keep Order, - - - - 
♦lies' A Class in Geometry ----- 
Johnson's Education by Doing, - - _ 

♦Keilosrg's How to "Write Compositions - 
Kellogg's Geography by Map Drawing 
♦Picture Language Cards, 3 sets, each, 
Seeley's Grube Method of Teaching Arithmetic, 

" Grube Idea in Teaching Arithmetic 
Smith's Rapid Practice Cards, 
WoodhuU's Easy Experiments m Science, 



paper 
paper 

cl. 

cl. 
paper 
paper 

cl. 

paper 

cl. 

cl. 
cl. 
33 sets, each 
cl. 

PRIMARY AND KINDERGARTEN 



.50 
.30 

.50 
.50 



.30 
.50 

.50 

1.00 
.30 

.50 



Calkins' How to Teach Phonics, _ _ _ cl. .50 

Currie's Early Education, ----- cl. 1.25 
Gladstone's Object Teaching, _ - _ - paper 

Autobiography of Froebel, - - - _ cl. .50 

Hoffman's Kindergarten Gifts, - - - - paper 

Johnson's Education by Doing, - - - - cl. .50 

♦KUburn's Manual of Elementary Teaching - 1 50 

Parker's Talks on Teaching, _ _ - - cl. 1.25 

Patridge's Quincy Methods, - - - _ cl. 1.75 

Rooper's Object Teaching, ----- cl. .25 

Seeley's Grube Method of Teaching Arithmetic, cl. 1.00 

" Grube Idea in Primary Arithmetic, - cl. .30 

♦Sinclair's First Years at School, - - : - cl. .75 



1.00 
.15 
.15 

1.00 
.15 
.40 
.40 
.15 
.60 
.15 

1.20 

1.00 

1.20 
.64 

1.40 
.15 
.60 
.20 
.20 
.20 
.16 

1.00 
.60 
.15 



.40 
.24 
.25 
.40 
.40 
.15 
.15 
.24 
.40 
15 
.40 
.30 
.80 
.24 
.50 
.40 



.40 

1.00 

.15 

.40 

.15 

.40 

1.20 

1.00 

1.40 

.20 

.80 

.24 

.60 



.08 

Pd 

pd. 

pd. 

pd. 
.05 
.05 

pd. 
.05 

pd. 
.12 
.09 
.14 
.08 
.13 

pd. 
.08 
.03 
.03 
.03 

pd. 
.10 
.05 

pd. 



.05 
.03 

pd. 
.05 
.05 

pd. 

pd. 
.03 
.05 

pd. 
.05 

pd. 
.07 
.03 

.05 



.a5 

.08 
pd. 
.05 
pd. 
.On 
.10 

.m 

.13 

.03 
.07 
.03 
.06 



MANUAL TBAININO. 

Butler's Argument for Manual Training, - - paper .15 pd. 

♦Larsson's Text-Book of Sloyd, - - - - ol. 1.50 1.30 .15 

Love's Industrial Education, _ _ _ - cl. 1.50 1,30 .12 

♦Upham's Fifty Lessons in Woodworking, - cl. .50 .40 .05 

QUESTION BOOKS FOB TEACHERS. 

Analytical Question Series. Geography, - - cl. .50 .40 .05 

'^ " " U. S. History, - cl. .50 .40 .05 

" " " Grammar, - - cl. .50 .40 .05 

♦Educational Foundations, bound vol. '91-'93, paper .60 pd. 

* " " . " '9;3-'93, cl. 1.00 pd. 

N. Y. State Examination Quest ons, - ,- - cl. 1.00 .80 .08 

♦Shaw's National Question Book Newly rev' sed. 1.75 pd. 

Southwick's Handy Helps, ----- cl. 1.00 .80 .08 

Southwick's Quiz Manual of Teaching. Best edition, cl. .75 .60 .05 

PHYSICAL EDUCATION and SCHOOL HYGIENE. 

GrofE's School Hygiene, _ _ _ _ _ paper .15 pd. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

BlaiMe On Self Cultiu-e, ----- cl. .25 .30 .03 

Fitch's Improvement in Education, - - - paper .15 pd. 

Gardner's Town and Country School Buildings, cl. 3.50 3.00 .13 

Lubbock's Best 100 Books, ----- paper .30 pd. 

Pooler's N. Y. School Law, ----- cl. .30 .24 .03 

Portrait of Washington, ----- 5.00 pd. 

♦Walsh's Great liulers of the World, - - - cl. .50 .40 .05 

Wilhelm's Student's Calendar, - - - _ paper .30 .34 .03 

Bas-Reliefs of 13 Authors, each, - - - 100 pd. 

SINGING AND DIALOGUE BOOKS. 

♦Arbor Day, How to Celebrate It, - - - paper .35 pd. 

Reception Uay Series, 6 Nos. (Set SI. 40 postpaid.'* Each. .30 .84 .03 

Song Treasures. ------- paper .15 pd. 

♦Best Primary Songs. Tiew - - - - - - - .15 pd. 

♦Washington's Birthday, How to Celebrate It, - paper .35 pd. 

SCHOOL APPARATUS. 

Smith's Rapid Practice Arithmetic Cards, (33 sets). Each, .50 pd. 
" Standard " Manikin. (Sold by subscription.) Price on application. 

*'ManWonderlul" Manikin, - - - - 4.00 pd. 
Standard Blackboard Stencils, 500 different nos., 

from 5 to 50 cen<"s each. Send for special catalogue. 

" Unique" Pencil Sharpener, _ - - - 1.50 .10 

♦Russell's Solar Lantern, ----- 35.00 pd. 
Standard Physician's Manikin. (Sold by subscription.) 

^W° 100 page classified, illustrated, descriptive Catalogue of the above 
and many other Method Books, Teachers' Helps, sent free. 100 pageCat- 
loguelof books tor teachers, of allSpuWishers, light school apparatus, etc., 
sent free. Each of these con; ain our special teachers' prices. 

E. L. KELLOGG & CO., New York & Chicago. 



SEND ALL ORDERS TO . 

6 E. L. EELLOQQ & CO., NEW YORK & GEICAOO. i 

Aliens Mind Studies for Young Teach- 

EES. By Jerome Allen, Ph.D., Associate Editor of the 
School Journal, Prof, of Pedagogy, Univ. of City of 
N. Y. 16mo, large, clear type, 128 pp. Cloth, 50 cents ; to 
teachers, 40 cents ; by mail, 5 cents extra. 

There are many teachers who 
know little about psychology, 
and who desire to be better in- 
formed concerning its princi- 
ples, especially its relation to the 
work of teaching. For the aid 
of such, this book has been pre- 
pared. But it is not a psychol- 
ogy — only an introduction to it, 
aiming to give some funda- 
mental principles, together with 
something concerning the phi- 
losophy of education. Its meth- 
™-^..^^ od is subjective rather than ob- 
^'^fi jective, leading the student to 
' A^'l watch mental processes, and 
draw his own conclusions. It 
, ^ ^ , is written in language easy to 
'^^-jsr / ' be comprehended, and has many 
Jerome Allen, Ph.D.,Associate Editor practical illustrations. It will 
of the Journal and Institute. aid the teacher in his daily work 
in dealing with mental facts and states. 

To most teachers psychology seems to be dry. This book shows 
how it may become the most interesting of all studies. It also 
shows how to begin the knowledge of self. " We cannot know 
in others what we do not first know in ourselves." This is the 
key-note of this book. Students of elementary psychology will 




appreciate this feature of 
ITS 



Mind Studies. 
CONTENTS. 



CHAP. 

I. How to Study Mind. 
II. Some Facts in Mind Growth. 

III. Development. 

IV. Mind Incentives. 

V. A few Fundamental Principles 

Settled. 
VI. Temperaments. 
VII. Training of the Senses. 
Vni. Attention. 
IX. Perception. 
X. Abstraction. 

XI. Faculties used in Abstract 
Thinking. 



CHAP. 

XII. From the Subjective to the 

Conceptive. 
Xin. The Will. 
XIV. Diseases of the Will. 
XV. Kinds of Memory. 
XVI. The Sensibilities. 
XVII. Relation of the Sensibilities 

to the Will. 
XVIII. Training of the Sensibilities. 
XIX. Relation of the Sensibilities 
to Morality. 
XX. The Imagination. 
XX^. Imagination in its Maturity. 
y^T[. Education of the Moral Sens*. 



SEND ALL ORDERS TO 



E. L. KELLOOQ & CO., NEW YORE & CHICAGO. 33 



Reception Day. 6 3^os. 

A collection of fresh and original dialogues, recitations, decla- 
mations, and short pieces for practical use in Public and 
Private Schools. Bound in handsome new paper cover, 160 
pages each, printed on laid paper. Price, 30 cents each; U 
teachers, 34 cents; by mail, 3 cents extra. 

The exercises in these books bear upon education; have a rela- 
tion to the school-room. 

1. The dialogues, recitations, and declamations gathered iu 

this volume being fresh, short, 
^^^^M'^^^^Y^^''^^^^. ^^^ ^^^y ^^ ^^ comprehended, are 

~-u ■■-■■■ ■•:■. ...-*.?«'.•< q£ q^j, gfjjjools 

2. They have mainly been used 
by teachers for actual school 
exercises. 

3. They cover a different ground 
from the speeches of Demosthenes 
and Cicero — which are unfitted 
for boys of twelve to sixteen 
years of age. 

4. They have some practical in- 
terest for those who use them. 

5. There is not a vicious sen- 
tence uttered. In some dialogue 
books profanity is found, or dis- 
obedience to parents encouraged, 
or lying laughed at. Let teachers 
look out for this. 

6. There is something for the 
New Cover. youngest pupils. 

7. "Memorial Day Exercises" for Bryant, Garfield, Lincoln, 
etc., will be found. 

8. Several Tree Planting exercises are included. 

9. The exercises have relation to the school-room, and bear 
upon education. 

10. An important point is the freshness of these pieces. Most 
of them were written expressly for this collection, and can be 
found nowhere else. 

Boston Journal of Education.— ■" It is of practical value." 
Detroit Free Press.—" Suitable for public and private schools." 
Western Ed. Journal.—" A series of very good selections." 




SEND ALL ORDERS TO 

M K L. KELLOGG & CO., NEW YOllK & CHICAGO. 
WHAT EACH NUMBER CONTAINS. 



No. 1 

Is a specially fiue number. One dia- 
logue in it, called " Work Conquers," 
for 11 girls and 6 bojs, has been given 
hundreds of times, and is alone worth 
the price of the book. Then there 
are 21 other dialogues. 
29 Recitations. 
14 Declamations. 
17 Pieces for the Primary Class. 

No. 2 Contains 

29 Recitations. 
12 Declamations. 

17 Dialogues. 

24 Pieces for the Primary Class. 

And for Class Exercise as follows: 

The Bird's Party. 

Indian Names. 

Valedictory. 

Washington's Birthday. 

Garfield Memorial Day. 

Grant 

Whittier 

Sigourney " " 

No. 3 Contains 

Fewer of the longer pieces and more 
of the shorter, as follows : 

18 Declamations. 

21 Recitations. 

22 Dialogues. 

24 Pieces for the Primary Class. 
A Christmas E ^cercise. 
Opening Piece, and 
An Historical Celebration. 



No. 4 Contains 

Campbell Memorial Day. 
Longfellow " " 

Michael Aflgelo " " 

Shakespeare " " 

Washington " " 
Christmas Exei'cise. 
Arbor Day " 

New Planting " 
Thanksgiving " 
Value of Knowledge Exercise. 
Also 8 other Dialogues. 
21 Recitations. 

23 Declamations. 

No. 5 Contains 

Browning Memorial Day. 
Autumn Exercise. 
Bryant Memoii^il Day. 
New Planting Exercise. 
Christmas Exercise. 
A Concert Exercise. 

24 Other Dialogues. 
16 Declamations, and 
36 Recitations. 

No. 6 Contains 

Spring; a flower exercise for very 

young pupils. 
Emerson Memorial Day. 
New Year's Day Exercise. 
Holmes' Memorial Day. 
Fourth of July Exercise. 
Shakespeare Memorial Day. 
Washington's Birthday Exercise. 
Also C other Dialogues. 
6 Declamations. 
41 Recitations. 

15 Recitations for the Primary Class. 
And 4 Songs. 



Our Reception Day Series is not sold largely by booksellers, 
who, if they do not keep it, try to have you buy something else 
similar, but not so good. Therefore send direct to the publishers, 
by mail, the price as above, in stamps or postal notes, and your 
order will be filled at once. Discount for quantities. 



SPECIAL OFFER. 

If ordered at one time, we will send postpaid the entire 
6 Nos. for $1.40. Note the reduction. 



SEND ALL ORDBnS Td 

S. L. KELLOGG & CO., NEW YORK & OEIGAGO. 



41 



Song Treasures. 



THE PRICE HAS BEEN 
GREATLY REDUCED. 



Compiled by Amos M. Kellogg, editor of the School Jour- 
nal. Beautiful and durable postal- card man ilia cover, 
printed in two colors, 64 pp. Price, 15 cents each; tx) teachers, 
12 cents; by mail, 2 cents extra. 30th thousand. Write for 
our special terms to schools for quantities. Special terms for use 
at Teachers' Bistitui-es. 

va^bir Tof «£^''1S^II'»S lilliTSWilMlliBSlWI" 

lection of mu- 
sic for all 
schools and in- 
stitutes. 

1. Most of 
the pieces have 
been selected 
by the teachers 
as favorites in 
the schools. 
They are the 
ones the pupils 
love to sing, 
it contains 
nearly 100 
pieces. 

2. All the pieces "have a ring to them;" they are easily 
karned, and will not be forgotten. 

3. The themes and words are appropriate for young people. 
In these respects the work will be found to possess unusual merit. 
Nature, the Flowers, the Seasons, the Home, our Duties, our 
Creator, are entuned with beautiful music. 

4. Great ideas may find an entrance into the mind through 
music. Aspirations for the good, the beautiful, and the true are 
presented here in a musical form. 

5. Many of the words have been written especially for the 
book. One piece, "The Voice Within Us," p. 57, is worth the 
price of the book. 

6. The titles here given show the teacher what we mean ; 

Ask the Children, Beauty Everywhere, Be in Time, Cheerfulness, 
Christmas Bells, Days of Summer Glory, The Dearest Spot. Evening Song, 
Gtentle Words, Goiiig to School, Hold up the Right Hand, I Love the Merry, 
M^ry Sunshine, Kind Deeds, Over in the Meadows, Our Happy School, 
Scatter the Germs of the Beautiful, Time to Walk, The Jolly Workers, T1m» 
Te«®feer'g Life, Ti?ifeiit« to Whittier, e^c, ©te. 




Deacidified using the Bookkeeper proces 
Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide 
Treatment Date: April 2011 

PreservationTechnologies 

A WORLD LEADER IN COLLECTIONS PRESERVATIO 

1 1 1 Thomson Park Drive 

Cranberry Township, PA 16066 | 

(724)779-2111 | 



m^HipHHiil^jilillgyiSiM® LIBRARY OF CONGRESS | 

viifiJi^H;i^^i£?i:;iHI!^:Hih!!i^^ A-|Q Q^A HOQ Q ' 

Hi;n^puu^i^i;ij-i;^n^g^ U U y oh\j a o 1 
















^H 






1 






^H 
















■ 




^1 






















^^^H 






^H 




































■ 





